Based on my reading and the previous conversations regarding compounds I
have compiled a simple compound reference guide. I would appreciate it if
those who are knowledgable in these areas could take a look at it and send
me any relevant feedback (via the group) so that I may fix any problem
areas. My idea is to have a quick reference guide that I can look at when I
am getting myself really confused. Hopefully it would be of use to others
as well. I will paste the text below:
Metta,
Alan
Paa.li Compounds:
Acknowledgements:
This article could not have been written without the comments and
constructive criticisms of the following people: Everett (Rett) Thiele,
Stephen Hodge, Ole Pind, and Ong Yong Peng and these books: "Introduction
to Paa.li" by A.K. Warder, "Teach Yourself Sanskrit" by Michael Coulson, and
"A Practical Grammar of the Paa.li Language" by Charles Duroiselle.
Knowing the differences between the different types of compounds and how
they are used is important when translating Paa.li. Though in some cases
one might mistake one compound for another and still translate the passage
in an acceptable way, there are definite cases where misunderstanding of the
type of compound in question can lead to unfortunate mis-translations.
There are six types of compounds found in Paa.li literature; namely:
Compounds are created by combining adverbs, adjectives, participles,
pronouns and nouns in order to form more complex words with richer meanings.
When compounds are formed, if declension is necessary (as is usually the
case) then only the final word is declined with the prefixed words being in
their stem form (with the exception of words in -ant and -an which are
resolved to -at and -a respectively).
Each of these types of compounds will be discussed at length below:
1) Tappurisa compounds:
Tappurisa compounds are composed of two or more words (adjectives,
participles, pronouns, and nouns) and can be used as a noun or an adjective.
The prefixed word is associated with the posterior word (which predominates)
via a direct relation that may have the quality of the following cases,
i.e., accusative, instrumental, dative, genitive, ablative, or locative.
A Tappurisa compound which helps to illustrate this is "mad-house."
This may be explained by a dative relation such as "house for the mad" as is
the common usage of the word in English, or if it is indeed that "the mad"
own the house, then it may be "house of the mad" with a genitive relation,
though this sense of the term "Mad-house" in English is not usual.
One could create a variety of other tappurisa compounds with the other case
relations such as:
Sword-fight (fight by sword and hence instrumental)
Home-made (made in a home and hence locative)
Book-learning (learned from a book and hence ablative)
It is important to keep in mind that though tappurisa compounds are often
used as nouns, they may also function as adjectives.
To borrow the example of "home-made" above, it is possible to say:
"These brownies are home-made" with "home-made" helping to clarify the
quality of the brownies, i.e., they were not bought from a store.
In this case, "home-made" serves as an adjective in relation to "brownies."
The key is that when the final member of a tappurisa compound is an
adjective then we have a tappurisa functioning as an adjective rather than a
bahubbiihi compound (see below) which would function adjectivally but end
with a noun.
An important rule to remember for tappurisa compounds is that if the words
were separated, the second member would keep the same case as the former
compound while the prefixed member would have the case of the relation
between the two words. Example, if "sword-fight" were separated, then
"fight" would keep the case that the compound originally had, and "sword"
would have the instrumental case.
2) Kammadhaaraya Compounds:
There are four general types of kaamadhaaraya compound constructions:
1) adj+substantive(noun)= ex. such as black-bird
2) adjective (or adverb)+adjective(or participle)= ex. such as 'intensely
lovely' or 'soft spoken'
3) substantive+adj= ex. ice-cold
4) substantive+substantive= ex. such as girl-friend
The key to recognizing these compounds is noting that the anterior term
qualifies the posterior term (which predominates) adjectivally, and so in
these compounds, if the two components were to be separated, the first word
would be in the same case as the second word. "Black" would conform to the
case of "bird" which would remain in the case of the former compound.
Compare this to tappurisa compounds where the anterior member would change
cases according to the case relation (instrumental, dative, genitive, etc.)
Further guidelines for kammadhaaraya compounds:
(a) In kammadhaaraya compounds, the adjective: mahanta assumes the form:
mahaa, and, if the consonant which follows is reduplicated, the form: maha.
(b)The word: santa, good, being, takes the form; sa (Sanskrit sat).
(c) The word: puma, a male, rejects its final a.
(d) When the two members of a kammadhaaraya are feminine, the first one
assumes the form of the masculine.
(e) The Prefix na, not, is replaced by a before a consonant and by an before
a vowel.
(f) Prefix ku, meaning bad, little, may become ka before a consonant, and
kad before a vowel.
(g) In their uncompounded state, the two members of a kammadhaaraya are in
the same case.
3) Bahubbiihi compounds:
Bahubbiihi compounds are adjectival compounds whose posterior words are
always nouns. These compounds also always have an exocentric focus. This
means that they refer to an outside object and must be understood in
relation to that object in order to be fully comprehensible.
One example of a sentence using a compound of this type is:
"Hey big-mouth, get over here!"
"Big-mouth" in this case obviously does not literally refer to a "big-mouth"
that someone is calling, but to a person who HAS a "big-mouth," or more
specifically, a person who talks too much or too loudly. The referent in
this case is a person, and thus even though "big-mouth" is a noun, it is
qualifying the referent which is a person and is hence acting as an
adjective.
Thus, this compound "big-mouth" is an adjective qualifying a person, and
must be understood as such since it functions as a noun in the sentence. To
gloss the term "big-mouth" as literally referring to a big mouth would be a
mistake and the resulting translation would be quite incorrect.
One may note that "big-mouth" is in fact formed just like a kammadhaaraya
compound and the only thing that makes it a bahubbiihi is the context. As a
bahubbiihi it is acting as an adjective of the referent that is not included
in the compound itself. If we were indeed speaking of a big mouth such as
in the phrase: "wow, look at that big-mouth" and we literally meant that
there was a really big mouth that were looking at, then it would simply be a
kammadhaaraya in the form of (adj+substantive).
This rule applies to other bahubbihi compounds which may be formed as
tappurisa compounds (or the other types of compounds for that matter) such
as "baby-face" where the case relation is genitive between the members,
i.e., "face of a baby," yet if we were to speak to an adult thusly: "Hey
baby-face, get over here!" then this compound that is formed as a tappurisa
would be used as a bahubbiihi compound and thus would function as an
adjective related to the referent which is not specifically mentioned
here(the adult). In sentences with bahubbiihi compounds, however, the
referent may be either stated or implict.
4) Dvanda Compounds:
Dvanda compounds are two nouns that are added together with no added meaning
due to the compounding.
Examples are:
Sixty-seven
Bitter-sweet
These compounds mean "sixty+seven" and "bitter+sweet" respectively.
5) Digu Compounds:
Digu compounds begin with a number and are followed by a noun.
Examples are:
Four-score
Ten-pence
Two-ply
In these compounds, the numbers are telling us literally how many of the
nouns are involved. In the case of "four-score" we have four scores, with a
score being twenty years, and so the term designating 80 years. In the
second case we have the term describing how many single pence there are;
"ten."
6) Avyayiibhaava Compounds:
Avyaiibhaava compounds are used as adverbs and as such are indeclinable.
They must refer to a verb in some way. In this type of compound, it is the
first word rather than the following word that predominates and this first
word as well as the compounded whole, is also an indeclinable. The
indeclinable form taken is usually based on the neuter nominative/accusative
singular ending.
Examples:
Overhead
Underground
Superfast
In these cases, the indeclinable compounds refer to where or how the action
(verb) is being done and thus function as adverbs.
Concluding Statments:
One last note; when analyzing a more complicated compound with more than two
components one must resolve the various components in a specific manner.
One must work from the
last member to the first, one pair of terms at a time. In other words, a
compound that consists of four terms: A + B + C + D should be
analyzed as (C + D), then (B + (C + D)) and then (A + (B + C + D)). In this
way, the full meaning of the compound will become clear.
Remember; knowing the differences between the different types of compounds
is important for efficient and accurate translations.