Chapter:  [ Contents | 1. Alphabet | 2. Sandhi | 3. Assimilation | 4. Strengthening | 5. Declension | 6. Feminine | 7. Adjectives | 8. Numerals | 9. Pronouns | 10.1 Verbs | 10.2 Verbs | 10.3 Verbs | 11. Indeclinables | 12. Compounds | 13. Derivation | 14. Syntax | 15. Prosody ]

A Practical Grammar of the Paali Language
Chapter 13

DERIVATION

558. We have now come to a most important part of the grammar; the formation of nouns and adjectives otherwise called Derivation.

559. In Paali, almost every declinable stem can be traced back to a primary element called a Root.

560. A root is a primitive element of the language incapable of any grammatical analysis, and expressing an abstract idea. It is common in European languages to express the idea contained in the root by means of the infinitive, e.g. /gam, to go, but it must be borne in mind that the root is not an infinitive, nor indeed a verb or noun, but simply a primary element expressing a vague indefinite idea. This indefinite idea is developed out of the root and is made to ramify into a diversity of meanings, both abstract and concrete, by means of suffixes.

561. The roots of the Paali language, with slight variations in form, easily recognizable to the trained eye, are common with those of Sanskrit and consequently with many of the roots of the lndo-European Languages.

562. Every true root is monosyllabic as: /nas, to perish; /bhaa, to shine; /ruh, to grow; /pac, to cook. Roots which have more than one syllable are the result of

(a)the union of a verbal prefix with the root itself, both having become inseparable in the expression of a particular idea; for instance:
/sa"ngam:to fight= sam + /gamlit, to come together, to close in upon; and
(b)of reduplication (372ff) as
/jaagarto be wakefulfrom /gar (Sanks. /gr) to awake.

563. There are two great divisions of Derivation:

(i)kita (k.rt), or Primary.
(ii)taddhita, or Secondary.

564. Primary Derivatives are formed from the root itself and Secondary Derivatives from the Primary Derivatives.

565. Native grammarians recognise a third derivation, which they call u.naadi (u .n + aadi), from the suffix u .n by which a few words are derived. But the u.naadi derivation is very arbitrary, and the connection between the noun and the root is not clear, either in meaning or in form. These u.naadi derivatives are included in the kita Derivation; u.naadi suffixes are therefore included in the kita-Suffixes and will be distinguished by an asterisk (*).

566. We shall therefore in the present chapter, treat of Primary and Secondary derivation. A few hints only will be given on the u.naadi derivation.

567. When Suffixes, both primary (kita) and secondary (taddhita) are added to roots, nouns or adjectives gu.na* (103) frequently takes place; that is, a may be lengthened to aa , and i and u be respectively changed to e and o. (HL: *strengthening by altering vowels)

568. Whenever gu.na takes place by the addition of a suffix, native grammarians put an indicatory sign before or after the suffix to show that gu.na is to take place; this indicatory sign is generally the letter .nand sometimes the letter r. For instance: /cur, to steal,+ suffix .na = cora, a thief. Here, the true suffix is a, the letter .n being simply indicatory that guna change must take place; again, /kar, to do,+ .na = kaara, a doer. But /kar + suffix a = kara, a doer; in this last example no guna takes place and therefore , the suffix has not the indicatory sign. This sign is called by grammarians: anubandha. It is therefore clear that the anubandha or "indicatory sign of guna" is not part of the suffix.

569. European grammarians as a rule do not note the anubandha, but in this book it will be noted and put within brackets, and in small type, after the true suffix, thus: (.n)a, or kaa(.n). The true suffixes will come first, printed in bold type.

570. Again, some suffixes are shown by native grammarians by means of some conventional signs; e.g. .nvu is the conventional sign for suffix aka; yu is that for ana.m . Such conventional signs will be shown within brackets, after the true suffix, as; ana.m(yu); this means that ana.m is the true suffix, yu the conventional sign used by native grammarians to represent the suffix ana.m.

571. It must be remembered that sometimes even some of the prefixes explained in (514) undergo gu.naas:

virajja + ka = virajjaka
pa.tipada + (.n)a= paa.tipaada
vinaya + (.n)ika= venayika

572. Before some suffixes, (generally those with the indicatory.n finalc of the root is changed to k, and final g; as

/pac + (.n)a= paaka, a cook
/ruj + (.n)a= roga, disease

573. The final vowel of a stem may be elided before a suffix.

574. The rules of sandhi and assimilation are regularly applied.

(i) Primary Derivatives (kita)

575. As has been said already Primary Derivatives are formed directly from the roots by means of certain suffixes; these suffixes are called kita suffixes.

576. The kita suffixes are given below in alphabetical order to facilitate reference.

a- (a) (.n) (a).

By means of this suffix are formed an extremely large number of derivatives, some of which take gu.na and some of which do not. It forms nouns, (substantive and adjective) showing:

1st-action:
/bhajto divide+ a = bhaagadividing
/cajto forsake+ a = caagaforsaking abandonment
/kamto love+ a = kaamalove
/pacto cook+ a = paakahe act of cooking
2nd- the doer or agent:
/carto roam+ a = caara and caraa spy
/harto take, captivate+ a = harathe Captivator, a name of Shiva
/karto do, make+ a = karathat which does, the hand also kaara, a doer, maker
3rd- abstract nouns of action:
/kamto step, proceed+ a = kamastep, succession, order
/kampto shake+ a = kampashaking, trembling
/kar+ a = karaaction, making
/yujto join+ a = yogajoining
4th- It forms adjectives:
/kar+ a = kaaradoing, making, also kara, causing, making
/carto walk roamcaarawalking, roaming, and also cara, do
/pluto swim, float+ a = plavaswimming, floating
The student will readily understand that the root may be preceded by any prefix:
anu + /sarto go, move, walk+ a = anusarafollowing
pa + /visto enter+ a = pavesaentrance
sam + /gam+ a = sa"ngaamaassembly

The same remark applies to all the other suffixes.

577. From the adjectives formed by this suffix (4th), are formed the upapada compounds (552):

kammakaaro= kamma.m kaaro (kamma.m karotii'ti)the doer of the act
kumbhakaaro= khumbha.m kaaro(kumbha.m karotii'ti)the maker of the pot, potter.

578. Very similar in nature with the upapada compounds are those compounds which are the names of persons. In our opinion they are purely and simply upapadas, but Kacchaayana has the following rule:

"sa~n~naaya.m a nu" that is, to form a proper name,
suffix nu ( = .m = Accus. case) is added to the
1st member of the compound, which is the direct object of the root which forms the
2nd member and after which the suffix
a is added to denote the agent:
arindama, the subduer of his enemies = ari, enemy + .m (nu) + /dam, to subdue + a.
So vessantara, who has crossed over to the merchants, (vessa+ .m (nu) + /tar, to cross + a);
ta.nha"nkara, creating desire = tanhaa, desire+ .m (nu) + /kar + a. The name of a Buddha.

It will be seen from the above examples that the 1st member is in the Acc. case and is governed by the 2nd member which is an agent-noun formed by the suffix a.

Remark. The nouns formed by a are masculine: they form the feminine according to rules (183), and the same applies to the adjectives (197).

abha*- Used to form the names of some animals; the derivation is obscure.

kalabha, or ka.labhaa young elephant, from /kal, to drive, to sound;
karabhaa camel, from /kar, to do.
sarabhaa fabulous eight-legged kind of deer, from /sar (Sansk. ii.r), to injure, break, tear;
usabhaa bull from /us, (Sansk. .r.s), to go, flow, push;

aka (.nv)-forms a numerous class of action-nouns and adjectives with gu.na of the radical vowel:

/daato give+ aka = daayaka, a giver.
/gahto take, receive + aha = gahaka, taking, receiving, a receiver:
/karto make, do + aka = karaka, making, causing or maker, doer;
sometimes a -y is inserted between aka and a root ending in a vowel, especially long aa.
Remark. The feminine of these derivatives is generally in kaa or ikaa.

ala*-forming a few nouns of doubtful derivation from, it is said, the roots:

/kalto drive, sound, throw, etc.;
/kusto heap, bring together, cut; kusala, that which is capable of cutting sin, meritorious act.
/pa.tto split, slit; pa.tala, covering, membrane, roof
These nouns are neuter.

an- only a few words are derived from this suffix:

/raaj to rule + an = raajan, a king, ruler.
Remark. Nouns in an have the Nom. Sing. in aa (l56).

ana (yu)- this suffix forms an immense number of derivative nouns and adjectives. The nouns are neuter, or fem. in aa ; the adjectives are of the three genders. Gu.na may or may not take place; it is however, more common with the adjectives.

Nouns:
/ghusto sound + ana = ghosano, sounding;
/kudh.to be angry + ana = kodhano, angry
pa + /nudto push, move+ ana = panudano, removing, dispelling;
Adjectives:
/gahto take + ana = gaha"na.m, the seizing, taking;
/pacto cook + ana = pacana.m, the cooking;
/.thaato stand + ana = .thaana.m, a place.
The fem. of these adjectives is sometimes in aa, sometimes in ii. Fem.
/karto execute + ana = kaaranaa, agony, torture.
/sevto serve, stay by + ana = sevanaa, also, sevana.m, service, following

as- This suffix forms a not very large, but important class of words, which have already been explained (160); gu.na sometimes takes place; they are declined like manas (59); their Nom. Sing. is in o.

/vacto say, speak+ as = vacas (vaco), speech, word
/tijto be sharp+ as = tejas (tejo), sharpness, splendour

aani *-Rarely found, it properly does not form nouns, but a vituperative** negative imperative, with the prohibitive particle a (242, a) before the root, and a dative of the person who is forbidden to act: (HL: ** Marked by harshly abusive criticism.)

agamaani = a + /gam + aani, you are not to go! as in "paradesa.m* te agamaani", "You are not to go elsewhere!"   (HL:* para/other/desa/quarter.)
"te ida.m kamma.m akaraani (a + /kar + aani). (HL: not to do this act.)

aavi = vi (taavi)- is used as has already been seen, to form participles (231) so also:

aana (448), also at, ant = nta (440) so that the Perf. Active, the Pres. Active and the Reflective Participles are considered by native grammarians as coming under the head of kita Derivatives. The same remark applies to the P.P.P.

dhu- so given by native grammarians is, properly adhu; it forms but a few derivatives and is only another form of thu = athu (see below).

i- Forms a large class of derivatives, Masc., Fem. and Neuter, as well as a few adjectives. The nouns may be agent-nouns or abstract. But the derivation is not always quite clear (principally of neuter nouns), hence, some grammars include this suffix among the u.naadi. Strengthening takes place in a few roots.

Masc.:
/kuto sound sing + i = kavi, one who sings = a poet;
/mun, /manto think + i = muni, one who thinks = a sage
Fem.
/lipto smear, rub + i = lipi, a rubbing over, writing;
/ructo shine, to please + i = ruci, light, pleasure.
Neut.:
akkhieye;
aggifire
a.t.thibone, and a few others, of very doubtful derivation.
Adj.
/sucto beam, glow, burn + i = suci, beaming, clear, pure.
By means of this suffix is formed from
/dhaa, to bear, hold, a derivative: dhi, which forms many compounds, mostly masculine:
sam + dhi = sandhi, connection, union (in grammar = euphony);
udadhithe ocean = uda, water + dhi, holding (uda + /dhaa + i); others are:
nidhia receptacle (ni + /dhaa + i);
paridhicircle, halo (pari + /dhaa + i).
Similarly, from, /daa to give with prefix aa, we obtain:
aadi( = aa + /daa + i) = and so forth, and so on, etc, lit. = beginning.
The wordaadi is much used at the end of compounds.

icca (ricca), and iriya (ririya),-are given by Kacchaayana as kita prefixes, but in reality they are not: both are suffixes of the F.P.P. (466); they are found only in the two examples:

kicca and kiriya, (lit., what is to be done)business:
/kar + icca= kicca (with elision of radical a and of r)
/kar + iriya= kiriya with elision of radical a and of r).
But the true derivation* is kar + tya = kitya (with elision of ar and insertion of i) = kicca, according to the usual rules (74).
*Sans. /k.r + tya= k.rtya ; k.r + ya = k.rya = kriya.

ika- is given for the only root:

/gamto go: gamika, one who goes.

in = ii ( .nii )- This forms a very great number of derivatives whose stem ends in in, and the Nom. Sing. ii (see 137, 173); they are properly possessive adjectives, sometimes used substantively. Gu.na as a rule takes place.

/gahto take, receive + in = gaahin (gaahi), taking, catching;
/kar+ in = kaarin (kaarii), doing; paapakaarii , a sinner:
/yaato go, yaayin (yaayii), going; nagarayaayii, going to the town;
/daato give, daayin , (daayii), giving, a giver.
Note that a y is inserted between the suffix and the roots ending in aa long. The Feminine is formed according to rules (189).

ina- A few nouns are formed by this suffix; there is no gu.na:

/supto sleep + ina = supina.m (Neut.), a dream, sleep.
The derivation of some nouns and adjectives from this suffix is not apparent and clear, and it is also classed as an u.naadi;
/dakkhto be able, skilful + ina = dakkhi.na, able, southern.

ira-The derivitives from this, nouns and adjectives, are few; there is no gu.na:

/ructo shine+ ira = rucira, brilliant, beautiful;
/vajto be strong+ ira = vajira, thunderbolt.

iya*, i.t.tha**- are the suffixes used for the comparison of adjectives (238).  (HL: * >, ** >>)

isa*-forms a few nouns, mostly Masc., of rather obscure derivation:

/puurto fill + isa = purisa, a man, person;
/sunto oppress + isa = sunisa, an oppressor;
/ilto shake, come + isa = ilisa, one who shakes;
/mahto be great + isa = mahisa, mighty, a buffalo.

itta* (.nitta)- is said to express multitude (?): the root is gu.nated:

/vadto speak, to play (music) + itta = vaaditta.m, the multitude of those that play music, an orchestra.
This suffix and its derivatives are incomprehensible; but see -tta, -tra where its probable formation will be explained.

iivara*-forms a few Neut. nouns of doubtful connection with the roots from which they are derived:

/cito gather, to depend upon + iivara = ciivara.m, a monk's garment, that which is heaped upon or depended upon;
/paato drink + iivara = piivara.m, beverage, that which is to be drunk.

ka is added to very few roots which take gu.na; it forms agent-nouns and adjectives:

/vadto speak + ka = vaadaka, one who speaks, a musician; playing (adj.);
/dahto burn + ka = daahaka, burning (adj.).
Note that these two words would be better derived from suffix aka (see above)
/sukh(Sansk. cus) + ka = sukkha, dry, dried up;
/thu(Sansk. stu) to dribble, drop + ka = thoka, a little
ka often takes a connecting vowel i or u before a root, and forms the suffixes ika, uka (see also).

la generally with connecting vowels: a, or i before it. la is but another form of ra (see also):

/thuto be thick, strong + la = thuula, thick, fat;
/capto waver, tremble + (a) la = capala, tremulous, fickle, giddy;
/paato keep, guard + la = pala, a guardian;
/anto breathe, blow softly + (i) la = anila, wind, breeze.

laa.na - as well as yaa.na given as primary suffixes, are not at all suffixes; the true suffix is aa.na, which is a taddhita suffix (see also).

ma- forms some abstract nouns, agent-nouns, and some adjectives:

/bhiito fear, be afraid of + ma = bhiima, terrible, fearful;
/ghar(sansk. ghr) to be warm, to glow + ma = gharma = ghamma, heat, warmth.
(Note the assimilation of r (80);
/thuto praise, thoma, praise;
/dhuuto shake, move hither and thither + ma = dhuuma smoke.
This suffix, in Paali , becomes nearly confounded with the next: man, and native grammarians are often at a loss in choosing between these two suffixes: the reason is that no word in Paali being allowed to end in a consonant, they have included the stems in an in the vowel declension (152, 156-c, 157-a).

man- (given as ramma as well as man by Kacchaayana) forms action nouns, Masc. and Neuter; in a few cases the noun being both Masc. and Neut.; the stems are in an the Nom, in aa, o, or .m:

/dharto hold, bear + man = dhammo, dhamma.m, nature, characteristic, duty, the Law;
/kar+ man = kamma.m , action, karma
(Note the assimilation of r)
/bhiito fear + man = bhemo, fearful, terrible;
/khito destroy, make an end of + ma = khemo, secure, peaceful, khema.m, safety, happiness.
Most of the derivatives from man, have migrated to the class of those formed by the last suffix (ma).

maana- This is the suffix of the Pres. Part., Reflective already seen (447). (See, aana, above).

mi- The number of derivatives from this suffix is very restricted, they are Masc. or Fem. There is no gu.na.

/bhuuto exist, become + mi = bhuumi, the earth, ground, a place;
/u(sansk. v),to roll, turn from side to side + mi = uumi (uurmi, note the elision of radical r), a wave.

na- The use of this suffix in forming a certain number of P.P.P. has been explained (458); it also forms a few nouns; the root takes no gu.na, but through assimilation, the root is not always recognisable:

/varto cover enclose + na = va .n.na (80, 83), colour, external appearance;
/sup(Sansk. svap) to sleep + na = soppa( = S. svapna), sleep;
/phar(also phur = S. sphur, sphr), to shake, to make a jerky motion + na = pa.n.na a feather, wing.
/taas(S. trs), ta.nhaa, thirst, craving;
/jito conquer + na = jina, conqueror.

Connected with this na, are the suffixes ina, una (see also); also: tana, ( = S. tna), from this last is derived the word ratana, gift, blessing, jewel, from

/raato bestow + tna= tana , ratana
(note that radical aa is shortened through the influence of the double consonant to tna see 34).

ni- from this we obtain but a few nouns.

Fem.
/haato quit, forsake + ni = haani, abandonment, loss, decay;
/yuto fasten, to unite + ni = yoni, womb, origin, a form of existence.

nu- forms a few words mostly Masc., some abstract and some concrete:

/bhaato shine, to be bright + nu = bhaanu, beam, light, the sun;
/dheto drink + nu = dhenu, yielding milk, a milk-cow.

ta 1-This suffix has been explained in the formation of the P. P. P. (450). It also forms a few concrete nouns:

/duuto go far, to a certain distance + ta = duta, messenger;
/suuto impel, to set in motion + ta = suuta, a charioteer.
The student will remark that even these nouns look very much like P.P.P. (see. 452 remarks). The suffix ita, also connected with the- P.P.P. (452, ii), forms a few derivatives of doubtful connection with roots:
palitagrey;lohitared;haritagreen, etc.

ta 2 (S.- tas)- forms a few nouns

/suto go, pass + ta = sota, a stream;
/suto hear + tar:sota, the ear

taa (ritu, raatu) (S. tr or tar)- This suffix forms a pretty large number of agent-nouns; See (162).
Remark that the base is in u, and the nominative in aa;

/maato measure, mete out (food, etc.) + taa = mataa, mother;
/vadto speak, say + taa = vattaa, one who says, tells, a speaker.

ti- This forms a very numerous class of action nouns, Fem., agent-nouns, and a limited number of adjectives.

Fem:
/bhajto divide + ti = bhatti( = bhakti, 426 remark, 59, a), division;
/kittto praise + ti = kitti(with one t dropped), praise;
/gamgo + ti = gati, (456), a going, journey.
/mucmutti, deliverance;
/manto think, mati (455), thought, etc.
Adj.:
 /.thaato stand, last + ti = .thiti, lasting;
/padto go, step + ti = patti (64), going, a foot soldier.

tu 1- This is properly the suffix of the Infinitive, which has become an Accusative (363-i): but it also forms nouns chiefly Masc., but of the other genders too:

/dhaato lay, put + tu = dhaatu, Masc, and Fem., that which lay (at the bottom), a primary element, a root, principle;
/tanto stretch + tu = tantu, a thread, Masc;
/sito bind + tu = setu, a tie, bridge.

tu 2- The same as taa (ritu, raatu) above.

tra,ta (tran, ta)- forms a large number of derivatives chiefly denoting the agent, and concrete nouns:

/chadto cover over + tra, ta = chatra.m, chatta.m, an umbrella
(in chatra d has been dropped to avoid the collocation of three consonants; in chatta it is assimilated)
/gaa(a collateral form of /ga.m), to move + tra, ta = gatta.m, limb;
/niito lead + tra, ta = netra.m, netta.m, the eye, that which leads.

tha- The derivatives from this are not very numerous:

/gaato sing + tha = gaathaa, a song, stanza, verse;
/tar(S. tr), to cross + tha = tittha.m, ford, landing place (with connecting i).

thu and also dhu- give only a few derivatives, and have generally the form atthu, adhu.

/vip; /vepto shake, tremble + thu, dhu = vepathu, vepadhu, trembling;
/vamto throw up, vomit + thu, dhu = vamathu, vamadhu vomitting.

ra- Forms some nouns and adjectives; there is no gu.na, mostly found in the forms: ira, ura (see also), and ara.

Nouns:
/bhand /bhadto receive, praise + ra = bhadra, bhadda, (adj.) laudable, good, worthy;
/dhiito think + ra = dhiira (adj.) wise, a wise man;
/bhamto flutter, move in circles + (a) + ra = bhamara, a bee.

ri- gives very few derivatives:

/bhuu+ ri = bhuuri (adj.), abundant, much.

ru- forms some nouns and adj.:

/bhiito fear, be afraid + ru = bhiiru, timid;
/canto rejoice in, to gladden + ru = caaru (with elision of n), dear, gladsome.

u (ru and u)- Although making a large number of derivatives, substantive and adjectives, as the connection of the meaning with the root, is, in many, cases, not easily traced, this suffix is classed with the u.naadi; gu.na may or may not take place.

/bandhto bind + u = bandhu, a kinsman;
/kar+ u = karu, a doer, maker, artisan;
/tanto continue, extend + u = tanu, a son;
/vasto light up, shine + u = vasu, a gem; good.

uka, (.nuka)- forms a few nouns and adj. denoting the agent; there is gu.na;

/padto tread, step + uka = paaduka (Fem.), a shoe;
/kar+ uka = kaaruka(Masc.), a maker, artisan.

una- Forms a few derivatives.

/tarto cross, pass away + una = taru.naa, just begun, young, fresh,
/karto love, pity + una = karunaa, (Fem.) compassion;
/tanto continue, extend + u = tanu, a son;
/pisto grind, hurt, destroy + una = pisuno (adj.), backbiting, malicious; a tale-bearer.

uu- forms some adj. and nouns mostly Fem.

/vidto know + uu = viduu, knowing;
vi + /~naato know + uu = vi~n~nuu, knowing.

uura- A few nouns only.

/undto wet, moisten + uura = unduura, a rat.

usa, *ussa- The derivatives from this, very few, are doubtful:

/man,to think + usa, ussa = manussa, maanusa, man.

vaa -This, as the suffix of the P.P.A., has already been noticed (465).

ya- This forms Neut. nouns, most of them abstract in meaning. Assimilation takes place regularly.

/raajrule + ya = rajja.m, kingship, kingdom;
/vajto avoid + ya = vajja.m, a fault, what is to be avoided;
/yujto yoke, harness + ya = yoga.m, a carriage, conveyance.
It will be remarked that ya is also the suffix of the F. P. P. (466) which often, in the Neut. Sing. makes nouns.

yaa.n a (see remark; under: la.na).

Remarks.
(a) The student will have remarked that the participles Pres. Active, Pres. Reflective; the P.P.P. the Perf. Active and the F.P.P. are considered as belonging to the Primary derivation.
(b) Suffixes: tabba, an iiya, ya(nya), and icca are by native grammarians called kicca suffixes. (466)


579. (ii) Secondary Derivatives (taddhita)

Remarks.
(a) These derivatives are called "Secondary" because they are formed by means of suffixes from the the "Primary" derivatives explained in the kita derivation above.
(b) Secondary derivatives are also formed from pronominal bases (336).
(c) As in kita, gu.na may or may not take place.

580. The following remarks about the meaning of the secondary derivation, should be well noted:

(i)The great bulk of taddhita suffixes form adjectives from nouns.
(ii)These adjectives are very freely used as substantives, the Masc. and Fem. being generally nouns denoting the agent, while in the Neut. they are abstract.
(iii)The final vowel of a word is often elided before a taddhita suffix.
(iv)The gu.na affects mostly the first syllable of the word to which the suffix is added.

581. The following is a list in alphabetical order of the taddhita suffixes.

a (.na, and a)- An extremely large number of derivatives are formed by means of this suffix. It is added to nouns and to adjectives used substantively; these derivatives are essentially adjectives, used in most cases substantively. They primarily express connection with, relations with or dependence on that denoted by the "primary derivatives"; this relation is necessarily of many kinds, as:

(1) patronymics* (HL: A name derived with an affix (such as -son in English or O'- in Irish) from the name of your father or a paternal ancestor.)
the Masc. denotes the son of, the Fem., the daughter of and the Neuter the consanguinity or relation of
Person's name + ason of persondaughter of personrelation of person
vaasi.t.tha + avaasi.t.thovaasi.t.thiivaasi.t.tha.m
visamitta + avesamittovesamittavesamitta.m
manu + amaanavomaanaviimaanava.m(110, Remark)
(2) that which is dyed with:
kasaavaa reddish-yellow dye + a = kaasaavo , reddish-yellow, yellow; kaasaava.m, a monk's robe (which is dyed with such dye).
haliddaaturmeric + a = haaliddo, yellow, dyed with turmeric.
(3) the flesh of:
suukaraa pig + a = sokara.m pork;
mahisabuffalo + a = m aahisa.m, buffalo's flesh.
sokaro(As adj.) relating to pigs;
maahiso(As adj.) relating to buffaloes.
(4) belonging to:
vidisaa(a foreign country)+ a = vediso belonging to a foreign country, a foreigner;
magadhaa(Southern Bihar)+ a = maagadho, belonging to, born in, Magadhaa.
(4) belonging to:
vidisaa(a foreign country)+ a = vediso belonging to a foreign country, a foreigner;
magadhaa(Southern Bihar)+ a = maagadho, belonging to, born in, Magadhaa.
(5) a collection of:
kapotaa dove pigeon + a = kaapoto a group of doves, or, relating to doves;
mayuuraa peacock + a = maayuuro, a group of peacocks; adj., belonging to, relating to peacocks.
(6) Study, knowledge of, knowing:
nimittaan omen + a = nemitto, a knower of omens, a fortune teller;
veyyaa kara.na.mexegesis, grammar + a = veyyaakara.no, a grammarian;
muhuttaa while + a = mohutto, one who studies for a while only; also: relating to a moment, momentary.
(7) The locality in which something or some one is or exists:
saku.naa bird + a = s aaku.na.m, the place wherein birds roost or resort to;
udumbaraa fig-tree + a = odumbara.m, a place where fig-trees grow.
(8) Possession of:
pa~n~naawisdom + a = pa~n~no, possessing wisdom, wise, a wise man;
saddhaafaith+ a = saddho, one who has faith, believing, faithful, a believer.

aka (.naka)- Is said to denote the property of:

manussaa man + a = manussaka.m, that which belongs to man, the property of man, human. (See ka)

aya- For this, see ya.

aalu- (This is suffix lu, preceded byaa (See lu); denotes the tendency, and forms some past participial adj.

dayaasympathy, compassion + aalu = dayaalu, compassionate;
abhijjhaacovetousness+ alu = abhijjhaalu, covetous, whose tendency is to be covetous;
siitacold + aalu siitaalu, chilled, cold.

aana (.naana)- Forms patronymics:

+  aana

son of 1st columndaughteroffspring
kacca ( a proper name)kaccaanokaccaaniikaccaana.m
cora, a thiefcoraanocoraaniicoraana.m

aa.na - (given as a kita Suffix in the forms: laa.na, yaa.na (see kita suffixes above) forms a very few derivatives;

kalyaand by assimilation kalla, healthy, remembering, thinking of

 + aa.na

= kalyaa.no, kallaa.no, happy, blessed with health, good.

aayana( .naayana)- Also forms patronymics:

+  aayana

son of 1st columndaughteroffspring
kacca ( a proper name)kaccaayanokaccaayaniikaccaayana.m
vacchavacchaayanovacchaayaaniivacchaayana.m

bya- is said to denote: the state of:

daasaa slave+ bya = daa sabya.m, the state of being a slave, slavery.

dhaa - Has already been noted (see kita suffixes above).

era (.nera)- Patronymics; the final vowel of the word is elided.

vidhava+ era = vedhavera, the son of Vidhava;
na.lika+ era = na.likero, the son of Na.lika;
sama.naa monk + era = saama.nera, the son, viz. the disciple of the monk, a novice.

eyya

1 (.neyya)- The state or nature of:
alasaidle+ eyya = aalaseyya.m idleness;
saapateyya.mproperty (lit., one's own property)
= sa, own+ pati, master, owner + eyya (note the elision of i in pati).
2 (.neyya)-Patronymics; with gu.na.
vinata+ eyya = venateyyo, the son of Vinata;
maaliia gardener+ eyya = maaleyya, the gardener's son.
3- Denotes the nature of, the origin, the place where a thing is made, or a person or animal reared up.
Pabbateyya= pabbata + eyya, whose place or abode is in the mountain, belonging to mountains;
soceyya.m= suci, purity+ eyya, the state of him who is pure, also, purification;
koleyyo= kula, family + eyya, belonging to, reared up in a (noble) family, of good family;
baaraa.naseyya.m= baaraa.nasii, Benares + eyya; that which is made in Benares, lit., that the origin of which is in Benares.
4- Fitness, worthiness. This is a form of the F.P.P. already explained (468).

i 1. (ni)- Forms a few patronymics, from nouns in a:

duna+ i = doni, the son of Duna;
anuruddhaa+ i = Anuruddhi, the son of Anuruddhaa;
jinadattha+ i = jinadatthi, the son of Jinadattha.

i 2- After the word pura, town, city, indicates that which belongs or is proper to a city:

poriurbane, polite, affable.

ika (.nika)- Is of very wide application and is added after nouns and adjectives; gu.na generally takes place. It denotes:

(1) Patronymics:
naadaputta+ ika = naadaputtiko, the son of Nadiputta;
jinadattha+ ika = jinadatthiko, the son of Jinadattha.
(2) Living by means of
naavaaa boat + ika = naaviko, one who goes or lives by means of a boat = a boatman;
balisaa fish-hook + ika = baalisiko, a fisherman;
vetanawages + ika = vetaniko, one who lives upon wages, a labourer.
(3) Going by means of:
padathe foot+ ika = paadiko, one who goes with his feet, a pedestrian;
saka.taa cart + ika = saaka.tiko, one who goes in a cart.
(4) Relating to:
samuddathe sea + ika = saamuddiko, relating to the sea, marine;
saka.tacart, saaka.tiko, relating to carts.
(5) Playing upon:
vii.naaa lute, ve.niko, playing upon a lute, lute player (27, ii, Remark 2)
bheria drum, bheriko, a drummer, or, relating to a drum.
(6) Mixed with:
telaoil, telika.m, that which is mixed with oil; oily;
dadhicurds, dadhika.m, that which is mixed with curds, and dadhiko, mixed with or relating to curds.
(7) Making, the maker:
telaoil, teliko, an oil manufacturer.
(8) Connected with:
dvaaraa door, dvaariko, one who is connected with a door, a door-keeper.
(9) Carrying upon:
khandathe shoulder, khandiko, who carries on the shoulder;
a"ngulifinger, a"nguliko, who carries on the finger.
(10) Born in or belonging to a place, or living in a place:
saavatthisaavatthiko, of, born in, or, living in Saavatthi;
kapilavatthukapilavatthiko, of, born, in, or, living in Kapilavatthu.
(11) Studying, learning:
vinayathe Discipline, venayiko, one who studies the vinaya;
suttantaa discourse (of the Buddha), suttantiko, one who studies, or knows Discourses, viz., the Suttapi.taka.
(12) That which is performed by:
maanasathe mind, maanasiko, mental, and maanasika.m, the act performed by mind;
sarirathe body, saariiriko, bodily, corporeal, saariirika.m, the act performed by the body.
(13) That which is bartered for:
suva.n.nagold, sova.n.nika.m, that which is bartered for gold; sova.n.niko, relating to gold;
vatthacloth, vatthika.m, that which is exchanged for cloth; vatthiko, relating to cloth.
(14) Possession:
da.n.doa staff, da.n.diko, one who has a staff, a mendicant;
maalaawreath, maaliko, one having a wreath;
puttikowho has sons.
(15) A collection, herd, group:
kedaaraa field, kedaarika.m, a collection of fields;
hatthielephant, hatthika.m, herd of elephants.
(16) Measure:
kumbhaa pot, kumbhiko, containing a big measure, viz., as much as a pot; kumbhika.m, that which is contained in a pot.

imaa -

1. Denotes position or direction in space or time; it also shows relation:
pacchaabehind, western, pacchimo hindermost, western;
antalimit, end; antimo, last, final.
majjhamiddle, majjhimo, middling
2. Forms a limited number of possessive adj.:
puttason, puttimaa , who has sons;
papaaevil, sin, paapim aa sinful, evil.
This suffix is the same as that noticed in (221, 222) with connecting vowels before it.

in (.ni)- Forms a numerous class of possessive adj., very often used substantively (137); the stems are in in, and the nominative sing in ii;

da.n.daa staff, da.n.dii, possessed of a staff;
mantadesign, plan, mantii, one replete with plans, a minister, adviser;
paapaevil + in = paapii, having evil, evil.

ina- A few possessive adj.;

maladirt, taint + ina = malina, dirty, tainted.

issika- This is the sign of the Superlative (238).

iya- A few abstract nouns;

issaralord, chief + iya = issariya.m, dominion;
alasalazy, aalasiya.m, idleness.

iiya - like ima above.

iya, as iiya noticed in (466), is essentially a suffix of the F.P.P. The proper form of the suffix, it should be noted is: iiya.

ii 1- See in, above.

ii 2- Is used after the cardinals from 11 upwards to form ordinals expressing the day of the month, but also mere ordinals sometimes:

ekaadasa11 + ii = ekaadasii, the 11th day or simply, the 11th;
catuddasa14 + ii = catuddasii, the 14th day, or the 14th.

ka (ka.n)- Is much used to form adjectives, which in Neut. become abstract nouns; besides, it also forms a certain number of nouns Masc. which, however, are adjectives used as substantives. gu.na often takes place:

rakkhaaprotection + ka = rakkhako, protecting, a guard;
rakkhanadefence + ka = rakkhanako, a guard;
rama.neyyapleasurable + ka = raama.neyyako , delightful, raama.neyyaka.m, delightfulness.
It has a few other meanings;
(1) Collection, group;
raajaputtaprince + ka = raajaputtaka, a group or band of princes;
manussaman + ka = maanussaka.m, an assembly or group of men.
(2) Diminutives, with, sometimes, a certain amount of contempt implied;
paadafoot, paadako, a small foot;
raajaking, raajako, a princeling;
puttason, puttako, a little son;
luddhahunter, luddhako, a young hunter.
(3) Not seldom, ka adds nothing whatever to the primary meaning of the word;
kumaarachild, young prince+ ka = kumaarako
navayoung, junior+ ka = navaka.
(4) It is much used after compounds, above all, after bahubbiihii, to form possessives, but often also redundantly.
(5) The use of ka after numerals has been noticed (286).

kata- Is considered as a suffix by some grammarians; It is used with prefixes

ni+ ka.ta = nika.ta, near;
vi+ ka.ta = vika.ta, changed;
pa+ ka.ta = paaka.ta, evident, public, clear;
sam+ ka.ta = sa"nka.ta, narrow.
It will be remarked that ka.ta forms adjectives differing very little or even not at all from the meaning of the suffix to which it is added. It is probably a form of kata (P.P.P.), from /kar, to do, make.

kiya- Forms adj. denoting relation, connection (it is made up, no doubt, of ka + iya):

Andhathe Andhra country + kiya = andhakiya, relating or belonging to the Andhra country;
jaatibirth + kiya = jaatikiya, relating to birth, congenital.

la- Forms a few adj. and nouns; it is often preceded by the vowels: i, and u:

bahumany + la = bahulo, abundant;
vaacaaword + la = vaacaalo , talkative, garrulous;
phenafroth = phenila, frothy, the soap plant, soap;
maataamother + ula = maatulo, maternal uncle;
va.t.taa circle+ ula = va.t.tulo, circular;
kumbhiia pot, jar + la = kumbhiilo, a crocodile, one who has (a belly like) a jar.
la is another form ofra (see also below.);r andl often interchange (47, vi).

lu- For this see: aalu above.

ma- Forms ordinals (see 274); ma has sometimes a superlative meaning (see,ima, above). ima is the suffix ma with preceding vowel i.

maa, (mantu) (mant)- is much used in forming adj. of possession. It has been explained already (220, 221, 222, 223, 224).

maya- With this suffix are formed adjectives denoting made of, consisting of:

suva.n.nagold + maya = suva.n.namaya, made of gold, golden;
rajatasilver + maya = rajatamaya, made of silver.

min = mi- This forms a few possessive adjectives; the stems are inin and the Nominative Sing in ii (see, in and ii).

gocow + min = gomin, (gomii) possessing oxen, cattle, a possessor of cattle;
saown + min = samin (saamii) owner, master, lord.

mii - See last.

ra- From this are made a few adjectives; gu.na, in some examples, takes place. It is often preceded by the vowels a and i.

madhuhoney + ra = madhura, sweet, sweetness;
sikhaaa peak + ra = sikhaara, having a peak, peaked, a mountain;
susaempty, hole+ (i)ra = susira, full of holes;
kammaact, work+ ara = kammaaro, having or doing work, an artificer, smith.

so- same meaning as ra;

medhaawisdom+ so = medhaaso, having wisdom, wise;
lomahair+ so = lomaso, hairy.

si, ssi- See below (vin = vi).

ta- Forms a few nouns and adj. it is a possessive suffix:

pabbaa knot, joint, fulness + ta = pabbata, a mountain, that which has joints or fullness;
va"nkabent + ta = va"nkata, bent, crooked.

tama- Is the suffix used in forming the Superlative. See (238, i).

tana- This suffix forms, from adverbs, a few adjectives:

svaa(sve, suve), tomorrow + tana = svaatano, of tomorrow, belonging to tomorrow;
sana.m(S. sanaa), of old, always + tana = sanantano, ancient, old, perpetual;
nuunow + tana = nuutano fresh, new.

tara- As the suffix of the comparative, tara has already been explained (238, i).

taa

1- This suffix forms a numerous class of feminine abstract nouns from adjectives and nouns, and expresses the state, nature or quality of being that which is denoted by the adj. or noun.
lahulight+ taa = lahutaa, lightness;
saarapith, marrow + taa = saarataa, essence, strength;
ati(prefix) very great + suura, a hero+ taa = atisuurataa great heroism.
2- Denotes multitude, collection:
janaperson, man + taa = janataa, a multitude of persons, folk, people;
gaamavillage + taa = gaamataa, a collection of villages.
So: nagarataa, bandhutaa etc.

ti- Is used in forming the words expressing decades (see 251).

tta- (S. tva). Forms Neuter nouns of the same import as taa (i);

puthujjanaa common man + tta = puthujjanatta.m; the state of being a common man;
buddhaa buddha + tta = buddhatta.m, Buddhahood;
atthihe is + tta = atthitta.m the state of "he is", existence.

ttana- Used in the same sense as the last (S. tvana),

puthujjana+ ttana = puthujjanattana.m, state of being a common man;
vedanaasensation + ttana = vedanattana.m, sensitiveness.

tya = cca- (S. tya). Forms a few adjectives from indeclinables;

niin + cca = nicca, inward, inmate, own, eternal, perpetual;
amaawith, at home + cca = amacco, inmate, minister (for tya = cca, see 74).

tha- used in forming the ordinals: 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th. (see 251).

tha.m - Makes adverbs from pronominal stems; it has been noticed in (337).

thaa - This also has been noticed in (337).

vaa (vantu) (vant)- This suffix makes a very large class of possessive adjectives. It is similar in character to maa (mant). See (220).

va- Forms a small number of adjectives;

a.n.nawave + va = a.n.navo, billowy, also, the ocean;
kesahair + va = kesavo; hairy (a name of Vi.snu).

vii = vin- Used to form adjectives of possession. The stems are in in, and the Nominative Sing. in ii. It has been explained in (231).

It is used also after some words the stem of which ends in s (158, 160):
tapas(tapo), austerity, devotion +vii = tapassii (tapasvi), austere, a hermit;
yasas(yaso), fame+ vii = yasassii (yasasvi), renowned, famous.
Note that initial v of vii is assimilated to final s, thus giving ssii; the suffix as given by native grammarians is ssii, which the student should assume as being the true suffix.

ya ( .nya)- This forms a very large class of nouns, mostly Neuter abstract. gu.na takes place in most cases, and assimilation is regular.

alasalazy + ya = aalasya.m , aalassa.m , laziness;
kusalaskilful + ya = kosalla.m, skill, mastery;
pa.n.ditalearned, clever + ya = pa.n.dicca.m, learning, scholarship;
vipulabroad, large + ya = vepulla.m, development;
samaanaequal, same + ya = sama~n~no, common, general;
dakkhi.naaffable + ya = dakkhi~n~no, affable, kind;
dakkhi~n~n a.maffability, kindness.

Roots Used as Suffixes (kvi)

582. "kvi" is an imaginary suffix denoting that the root itself is to be considered as the suffix. When a root ends in a consonant, this consonant is elided: /gam = ga, /ghan, to kill = gha. As these form primarily adjectives, they assume, in certain cases, but not always, the endings of the three genders.

583. The student must bear in mind that native grammarians include kvi in kita. As, however,
they are used as suffixes added after Primary and Secondary derivatives and indeclinables, I have
preferred to treat them separately.

584. A list of the principal roots used as suffixes is here given.

bhuu- (/bhuu, to be), has generally the meaning denoted by the verb itself:

abhi+ bhuu = abhibhuu, mastering, overcoming, a conqueror (abhibhavi, to overcome);
vi+ bhuu = vibhu, arising, expanding, ruler, lord (vibhavati, to arise, expand);
sam+ bhuu = sambhuu, offspring, progeny; sambhavati, to be produced, to spring from.

da- (/daa, to give, bestow);

amataimortality + da = amatado, he who bestows or confers immortality, conferring immortality;
lokahitathe world's welfare + da = lokahitado, bestowing, or wishing for, the world's welfare.

ga- (/gam to go);

paarathe further shore + ga = parago, gone to the further shore, viz. to Nirvana;
kulafamily+ upa, near + ga = kulupago, one who goes near a family, a family adviser.

guu- (a collateral form of /gam);

addhaadistance + guu = addhaguu, going to a distance, a traveller;
paara+ guu = paaraguu , as above, paarago.

gha- (/ghan = han [59, note]) to strike, kill;

pa.tiback, in return + gha = pa.tigho, hatred.

ja- (/jaa, jan, to be born, produced):

pa"nkamud+ ja = pa"nkaja, produced in the mud, a lotus;
a"ndaan egg+ ja = a"ndaja, born from an egg = a bird.

ji- (/ji, to conquer);

maara the enemy of Buddha + ji = maaraji, conqueror of Mara.

pa- (/paa, to drink);

padaa foot + pa = paadapo, drinking by the foot (root), a tree.

pa- (/paa, to guard, keep);

gocow+ pa = gopo, cowkeeper.

.tha- (/.thaa, to stand; exist);

naavaaboat + .tha = naava.t.tho, stored in a boat;
aakaasathe sky, air+ .tha = aakasa.t.tho, standing, resting, abiding in the sky.

kha- (/khaa, a collateral form of /khan, to dig)

pariround + kha = parikha, that which is dug all round = a moat.

dada- properly the base (371-4) of /daa, but considered as a root by some grammarians, is used in the same way as da above: sabbakaamadada.m kumbha.m = an all-desire-granting vessel, a vessel which grants all desires.  (HL: sabba/all/kaama/desires/dadam/giving/kumbha.m/jar)

585. The taddhita suffixes may be classified as follows:

Patronymics- a, aana, aayana, era, eyya, i, ika.
aaanaaayanaeraeyyaiika
Possessive-
akaikaimaain = ii(ara, ira)sossiimaa(mat, mant)min = miivavaa(vat, vant)vii = vintainala
Group, collection, multitude- a, ika, ka, taa.
aikakataa
State of, quality, abstract idea: bya, eyya, iya, taa, tta, ttana, ta.
byaeyyaiyataattattanata
Relation (relating to): a, i, ika, ima, kiya.
aiikaimakiya
The others may be classified as miscellaneous.

586. It will have been remarked that some suffixes are merely made up of a principal one which has taken the vowel a or i or u before it. Such are:

aka, ikafrom ka;
aya, iyafrom ya;
ara, ira, urafrom ra;
ilafrom la.

(Original file downloaded from www.tipitaka.net/pali/grammar/. Tabulation follows the pdf file located at www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/paligram.pdf .)