Chapter:  [ Contents | 1. Alphabet | 2. Sandhi | 3. Assimilation | 4. Strengthening | 5. Declension | 6. Feminine | 7. Adjectives | 8. Numerals | 9. Pronouns | 10.1 Verbs | 10.2 Verbs | 10.3 Verbs | 11. Indeclinables | 12. Compounds | 13. Derivation | 14. Syntax | 15. Prosody ]

A Practical Grammar of the Paali Language
Chapter 14

SYNTAX (KAARAKA)

587. Syntax, in Paali, does not offer any difficulty for nearly all the relations of the substantives, adjectives and pronouns which will be explained in this chapter are very often obviated by compounding them as has already been explained in the chapter on Compounds. The student who has carefully read and mastered the Compounds has therefore done much and will understand ordinary prose without too much difficulty. However, there are peculiar uses of the Cases, without a knowledge of which a thorough mastery of the language would be impossible; we therefore invite the learner to read attentively the present chapter.

(i) Order of Sentences

588. The order of the Paali sentence is very simple in character, compound sentences being rather the exception than the rule:

(1) Whether the sentence be Simple, Compound or Complex, the predicate must always come last.

(2) In a simple sentence containing an object, the order is:

(i) Subject;
(ii) object and
(iii) predicate, as: daaso kamma.m karoti, the slave does the work.

(3) Words qualifying the subject or the object come before the subject and the object respectively, and adverbs before the verb: etetayo purisaa mahanta.m siri.m siigha.m paapu.ni.msu, these three men quickly attained to great glory.
Remark. Adverbs of time always come first in the sentence.

(4) The conjunctions, pana, but; udaahu, or, are used to form compound sentences; ce, yadi and sace, if, complex sentences.

(ii) The Article

589. There are no words in Paali corresponding to the English articles; the words eko, ekacce, one, a certain are often used in the sense of the indefinite article (253); and so, eso, that, this, do the function of the definite article: so puriso, the man; saa itthii, the woman.

Remark. Substantives not preceded by the above words may, according to the context, be translated as if preceded by the articles: puriso = a man, or, the man.

(iii) Concord

590. Concord of subject and predicate.

(1) The predicate may be:

(i)a finite verb: bhikkhu gahapati.m ovaadi, the monk admonished the householder;
(ii)a substantive with the verb "hoti" understood after it: yadi ete gu.naa, if these (are = honti) virtues;
(iii)An adjective with "hoti" also understood: tva.m atibaalo, thou (art = asi) very foolish;
(iv)A P.P.P. used as a finite verb; so pi gato, he too went, lit. he too gone.

(2) When a finite verb is used as predicate, it must agree with the subject in number and person. When there are several subjects of different persons, the verb is put in the first person plural: so ca tva.m aha.m gacchatha* (HL:gacchama), he thou, and I go. Should there be no subject of the first person, the verb is put in the 2nd person plural: so ca tva.m gacchatha, he and thou go.

(3) In the case of an adjective or a P.P.P. taking the place of the predicate, the adj. and the P.P.P. must agree with the subject in gender and number:

so gato, he went;so taru.no, he is young;
saa gataa, she went;saa taru.naa, she is young;
ta.m gata.m, it went;ta.m taru.na.m, it is young.

(4) But if a substantive stands in the place of a verb, no such concord of gender or number needs take place; appamado nibbanapada.m (= nibbaanassa pada.mo), vigilance is the path to Nirvana.

Concord of Adjective and Substantive

591. An adjective, or participle (which is of the nature of an adj.) when not compounded with the noun it qualifies, must agree with it in gender, number and case.

Concord of the Relative and its Antecedent

592. The relative must agree with its antecedent in gender, number and person.

(1)The relative may be used by itself, without the noun: yo janaati so ima.m ga.nhaatu, he who knows let him take this. Note, that in the above the demonstrative pronoun so is used as a correlative.
(2)The relative is used instead of a preceding noun: aha.m eka.m upaaya.m janaami, yena amhe ga.nhitu.m no sakkissati, I know an expedient by which he will not able to seize us.
(3)With the noun expressed: yassa purisassa buddhi hoti so mahaddhano ti vuccati, to whom there is wisdom, he is called very wealthy, he who has wisdom is said to be very wealthy.
(4)Note that the clause containing the relative is put first; sometimes the clause containing the correlative is placed first for the sake of emphasis: na so pitaayena putto na sikkhaapiyati, he is no father by whom the son is not made to learn.

(iv) Syntax of Substantives

593. This is properly government, for the term "kaaraka" expresses the relation between the noun and the verb; so that any relation existing between words not connected with a verb cannot be called a kaaraka, consequently the Genitive and the Vocative are not considered as cases, for they have no relation whatever with the verb; they are therefore called akaaraka, non-cases.

594.    1. The Nominative

The Nominative is used very much in the same way as in English; it is the subject of the verb and the latter must agree with it in number and person; see Concord of subject and predicate (590).

(i)The Nominative is used in apposition: ,
malliko kosalaraajaaMallika, king of Kosala.
(ii)It is used absolutely in titles of books, that is, it does not take the termination proper to the nominative;
maahajaanakajaatakathe birth story of Mahajanaka.

595.    2. Genitive

The true force of the genitive is -of and -'s expressing possession.

(i)The genitive therefore is used primarily to denote possession:
suva.n.nassa raasia heap of gold;
rukkhassa saakhaathe branch of the tree.
(ii)In such examples as the above, the genitive is often compounded with the noun it qualifies:
suva.n.naraasi.
(iii)It denotes the whole of which a part only is taken; this is called "partitive genitive":
braahmaa.na.m so pa.n.ditohe is clever among brahmins;
sabbayodhaana.m atisuurothe bravest of all warriors;
tumhaaka.m pana ekenaabut even not one of you.
(iv)The genitive is used also with words expressing, difference, equality, inequality:
tassa antara.m na passi.msuthey did not see the (its) difference;
sadiso pituthe same as (his) father;
tulyo pituequal to his father.
Remark. In these examples the ablative may also be used: sadiso pitaraa.
(v)Words meaning dear or the reverse, take a genitive:
saa braahma.nassa manaapaashe (was) dear to the brahmin.
(vi)Likewise words denoting: honour, veneration etc.:
gaamassa puujitohonoured of the village;
ra~n~no maanitorevered by (of) the king.
Remark. In these examples the Inst. may also be used: gaamena puujito.
(vii)Words of: skill, proficiency, etc., and their opposites, govern the genitive:
kusalaa naccagiitassaclever in dancing and singing.
(viii)It is used with words indicating: locality, time, distance:
amhaaka.m buddhassa pubbebefore our Buddha;
gaamassa avidurenot far from the village;
upari tesa.mabove them.
(ix)Believing in or well disposed towards:
budhassa pasannohe has faith in the Buddha.
Remark. Here the Loc. may also be used: buddhe pasanno.
(x)It is used also with words of remembering or thinking of (with sorrow), pitying, wishing for, giving or apportioning, honouring, cleaning, filling, fearing and a few others:
maatussa saratihe remembers his mother (with sorrow);
na tesa koci saratinobody remembers them;
telassa davatihe gives oil;
puurati baalo paapassathe fool is full of evil;
sabbe tasanti da.n.dassaall fear punishment.
In these examples the Acc. may be used: tela.m davati.
Remark. Words of fearing also govern the Abl.: kin nu kho aha.m sunakhaa bhaayami? Why should I fear the dog?
(xi)A genitive with a participle in agreement is called a Gen. Absolute. It generally denotes some attendant circumstance:
tassa bhatta.m bhuttassa udaka .m aharantiwhen he had finished his meal they fetched him water.
(xii)Some other relations of the genitive will present no difficulty, as they have their exact parallel in English.

596. It will be seen from the remarks above that the genitive is often used instead of

the Accusative,
the Ablative,
the Instrumentive and
the Locative.

It is also used adverbially, as kissa, why? It will also be remarked that whenever the genitive is dependent on a verb, it is so on account of its being used instead of another case, as in: maatussa sarati.

597.    3. The Dative

The person or object to or for whom, something is given or done, is put in the Dative case. The Dat. is consequently used also as indirect object with transitive verbs having an Acc. as direct object.

(i)The Dat., then, expresses the relations which, in English, are usually denoted by the words to, for:
bhikkhussa civara.m detihe gives a robe to the priest;
yuddhaaya paccuggacchaami;I will set out for battle.
(ii)The Dat. is governed by verbs expressing praise or blame, anger, believing, disbelieving, assent, envy, pleasure or displeasure, injury, benefit, approval, forgiveness, salutation, blessing, hatred, abuse, concealing, worshipping, carrying.
Examples:
Buddhassa silaaghatehe praises the Buddha;
yadi'ha.m tassa kuppeyyaif I should be angry with him;
duhayati disaana.m oghothe flood has injured the country;
tuyha.m saddahaamiI believe thee;
svaagata.m tehail to thee!
sotthi tuyha.m hotufare thee well!
khama meforgive me!
mayha.m sapatehe swears at or, reviles me;
tassa sampa.ticchihe assented to it;
ussuyanti dujjanaa gu.nav antaana.mwicked people envy the virtuous;
tassa atiita.m aaharihe told him a story;
devaa pi tesa.m pihayantieven the gods desire them, envy them;
sama.nassa rocate sacca.mtruth pleases a monk.
(iii)

The Dat. is commonly used with the verb "to be" to express possession:

puttaa me n'atthino sons are to me, I have no sons.
Remark. When the verb "hoti" is used with the Dat. to express possession, it is generally put in the singular, even when, as in the above example what is possessed is plural.
(iv)The word, ala.m, enough, fit, governs the Dat.:
ala.m kukkuccaayaenough of doubt!
ala.m mallo mallassasufficient is a warrior for a warrior! A warrior is match for a warrior.
(v)The words, attha, object, purpose;hita, benefit, blessing; and sukha, happiness, are used in the Dat. with the meaning respectively of: for the purpose of, for; for the benefit of; for the happiness of; and they govern a Gen.:
ropanassa atthaaya, or, ropanatthaayafor the purpose of sowing;
devamanussaana.m hitaayafor the benefit of gods and men;
tassa sukhaayafor his hapiness.
(vi)The Dat. may denote the purpose for which, and then governs a Gen:
daarassa bhara.naayafor the purpose of maintaining a wife, for the maintenance of a wife, to maintain a wife.
Remark. It will be seen from this example that the Dat. in aaya has the force of an Infinitive.
(vii)The Dat. is also used with the verb ma~n~nati, to consider, esteem, when contempt is implied:
kali"ngarassa tuyha.m ma~n~neI consider thee as chaff, a fig for you!
jiivita.m ti.naya na ma~n~neI do not consider life (so much) as grass, I do not care in the least for life.
(viii)The place to which motion is directed is sometimes put in the Dat:
appo saggaaya gacchati(only) the few go to heaven;
nirayaaya upaka.d.dhatidrags down to hell;
so ma.m udakaaya netihe takes me to the water.
(ix)The Dat. is often used instead of

the Accusative, and also of
the Locative.


598.    4. The Accusative

(i)The Accusative Case is generally governed by transitive verbs:
ratha.m karotihe makes a carriage;
aahaaro bala.m janetifood produces (=gives strength).
 (ii) All verbs implying motion govern the Acc.:
nagara.m gacchatihe goes to town;
bhagavanta.m upasa"nkamitvaahaving approached the Blessed One.
(iii)Verbs having the meaning of, to choose to name, to call, to appoint, to ask, to make, to know, to consider, etc. take two accusatives, one a direct object and the other a factitive or indirect object:
puriso bhaara.m gama.m vahatithe man carries the load to the village;
purisa.m gacchanta.m passatihe sees the man going;
here gaama.m and gacchanta.m are the factitive objects.
(iv)Causative Verbs likewise govern two Accusatives:
puriso purisa.m gaama.m gamaayatithe man causes the man to go to the village;
aacariyo sisa.m dhamma.m paathetithe preceptor causes the disciple to read the Doctrine.
Remark. In such examples the Instrumentive may be used instead of the factitive object: saamiko daasena (or daasa.m) khajja.m khaadaapeti. The master causes the slave to eat the food; purisena (or purisa.m) kamma.m kaareti, he causes the slave to do the work.
(v)When the roots:
/vasto live;
/thaato stand;
/sito lie down;
/padto go step;
/visto enter;
are preceded by the verbal prefixes:
anuupaabhiadhiaani
they govern the Acc:
gaama.m upavasatihe lives near the village;
nagara.m adhivasantithey dwell in the village;
ma~nca.m abhinisiideyya;he ought to sit on the cot;
sakkassa sahabyata.m upapajjatigot into companionship with Sakka, she went to Sakka's heaven.
(vi)The Acc. is used for the Loc.:
nadi.m pivati = nadiya.m pivatihe drinks in the river;
gaama.m carati = gaame caratihe roams in the village.
(vii)The indeclinables:
abhitonear, in the presence of, on both sides;
dhi, dhiiWoe! Fie! Shame!
as well as the expression:
dhi-r-atthuWoe, shame be to!
antaraabetween, on the way;
paritoaround, everywhere, on every side;
anuby the side of, inferior;
patito, towards, for, near;
pariaround;
upainferior to;
antarenaexcept, without;
abhibefore
govern the Accusative:
abhito gaama vasatihe lives near the village;
dhii braahma.nassa hantaara.mwoe to whom strikes a brahmin!
dhii-ratthu ma.m puutikaya.mshame on that foul body of mine!
upaaya.m antarenawithout expedient;
ma.m antarenaexcepting me;
antaraa ca raajagaha.mand on the way to Rajagaha;
parito nagara.maround the village;
sadhu devadatto maatara.m anuDevadatta is kind to his mother;
anu saariputta.minferior to Sariputta;
pabbatta.m anuby the side of the mountain;
saadhu devadatto maatara.m patiDevadatta is kind to his mother;
nadi.m nera~njara.m patinear the river Nera~njara;
upa saariputta.minferior to Sariputta.
(viii) Duration of time is put in the Acc.:
divasa.mthe whole day;
ta.m kha.na.mat that moment;
eka.m samaya.monce upon a time.
(ix)Ordinals in the Acc., denote "number of times"
dutiya.mfor the second time;
tatiya.mfor the 3rd time.
(x)Distance is also expressed by the Acc.:
yojana.m gacchatihe goes one league.
(xi)The Acc. is very often used adverbially:
khippa.m gacchatihe goes quickly;
hatthanillehaka.m bhu~njatihe eats "licking his hands."
Remark. This is called the adverbial accusative.

599.    5. The Instrumentative

(i)(i) The agent by whom or the instrument with which an action is performed is put in the Inst.:
cakkhunaa rupa.m passati(one) sees forms with the eye;
hatthena kamma.m karoti(one) does work with the hand;
daasena katodone by the slave.
 (ii)The Inst. shows cause or reason:
rukkho vaatena o.namatithe tree bends down on account of the wind;
kammuna vasalo hotihe is a pariah by reason of his work.
The Inst. can therefore be translated by such expressions as: by means of; on account of; through; by reason of; owing to.
(iii)

The conveyance in or on which one goes is put in the Inst.:

yaanena gacchatihe goes in a cart;
vimaanena gacchi.msuthey went in a flying mansion;
hatthina upasa"nkamatihe approached on his elephant.
(iv)The price at which a thing is bought or sold is put in the Inst.
kahaapa.nena no dethagive it to us for a kahaapa.na (a small piece of money);
satasahassena ki.nitvaahaving bought it for 100,000 (pieces of money).
(v)

The direction or route, or the way by which one goes is shown by the Inst.:

taa saaladvaarena gacchantithey went by the gate of the hall;
kena maggena so gato(by) which way did he go?
(vi)It is used to denote infirmity or bodily defects, the member or organ affected being in the Inst.:
akkhinaa so kaa.nohe is blind of one eye;
hatthena ku.nihaving a crooked hand.
(vii)

Words expressing, birth, lineage, origin, nature are put in the Inst.:

jaatiyaa khattiyo buddhoBuddha is a k·atriya by birth
pakatiyaa bhaddakogood by nature.
(viii)The Inst. expreses the time in which:
divasena pattoarrived in one day;
ekena maasena nagara.m gacchihe went to the city in a month.
(ix)

 Also the time at which:

tena samayenaat that time...
(x)

It expresses companionship, and is then generally used with the indeclinables, saha or saddhi.m, with, together with:

nisiidi bhagavaa saddhi.m bhikkhusa"nghenathe Blessed One sat together with the assembly of the monks.
(xi)The expressions "what is the use of," "what use to ..."," what benefit by ...", etc., are expressed in Paali by the Inst. of the thing and the Dat. of the person:
kin te jataahi dummedhawhat good to thee, O fool, by matted hair?
kin nu me buddhenawhat need have I of Buddha? What do I care for a Buddha?
(xii)

The word attho, desire, need, want, takes an Inst. of the object desired or wanted and a Dat. of the person:

ma.ninaa me atthoI want a jewel (lit., to me is need of, or desire for, a jewel).
(xiii)

ala.m, enough, governs also this case:

ala.m idha vaasenaenough of living here
ala.m buddhenaBuddha is sufficient for me.
(xiv)

Words denoting "separation" are generally construed with the Inst.:

piyehi vippayogo dukkhoseparation from those we love is painful.
(xv)The indeclinables, saha, saddhi.m, sama.m, with at: vinaa, without, except, govern the Inst.: 
vinaadosenawithout fault.
Remark. saha, sometimes expresses "equality": puttena saha dhanavaa pitaa, a father as rich as his son.
(xvi)Verbs meaning "to convey, to carry, to fetch" etc., take the Inst. of the place of carrying:
sisena daarukalaapa.m uccha"ngena pa.n.nam aadaayataking a bunch of firewood on her head and greens at her hips...
(xvii)

The Inst. is often used adverbially (see above).

(xviii)

It is also governed by many prepositions.


600.  6. The Ablative

(i)The primary meaning of the Ablative is that expressed by the word "from"; that is,
it expresses separation;
it expresses also many other relations, in which the principal idea of separation is more or less discernible.
 (ii)

Separation:

gaamaa apentithey left the village;
so assaa patatihe fell from the horse.
(iii)

Direction from: 

aviicito upariabove the Avici Hell;
uddha.m padatala(from) above the sole of the foot.
(iv)The place "wherein" an action is performed is put in the Abl.; in such cases a gerund is sometimes understood according to native grammarians, but the student will remark that these expressions have their exact parallel in English:
paasaadaa oloketihe looks from the palace, is said to be equivalent to:
paasaada.m abhiruhitvaa paasaadaa oloketihaving ascended the palace he looks from the palace.
(v)

Measure of length, breadth or distance is put in the Abl:

diighaso navavidatthiyonine spans long
yojana.m aayaamatoa league in length;
yojana.m vittharatoa league in breadth.
Remark. In these examples the Inst. may also be used: yojana.m aayaamena, yojana.m vitthaarena.
(vi)That from which a person or animal is warded or kept off is put in the Abl:
yavehi gaavo rakkhatihe keeps off the cows from the barley;
ta.n.dulaa kaake vaaretihe wards off the crows from the rice.
(vii)With verbs meaning to hide, conceal, "the person from whom one wishes to hide is in the Abl:
upajjhaaya antaradhaayati sissothe pupil hides himself from his preceptor.
Remark. In such expressions, the Gen. may also be used: antaradhaayissaami sama.nassa gotamasssa, I will hide myself from the samana Gotama.
(viii)When the verb "antaradhaayati" means, to vanish, to disappear, the place from which one vanishes is put in the Locative:
jetavane antaradhaayitvaahaving disappeared from the Jetavana Monastery.
(ix)

But when "natural phenomena" are referred to, the Nom. is used:

andhakaaro antaradhaayatidarkness disappears.
(x)

Verbs meaning "to abstain, to avoid, to release, to fear, to abhor", also govern the Abl.:

paapadhammmato viramatihe refrains from sin;
so parimuccati jaatiyaahe is released from existence
corehi bhaayaamiI am afraid of thieves.
(xi)

The Abl. also shows motive, cause, reason" and can be translated by for, on account of, by reason of, through , etc.:

vaacaaya maratihe died on account of his speech
siilato ta.m pasa.msantithey praise him for his virtue.
Remark. In these examples, the Inst. may be used as well: siilena pasa.msanti.
(xii)

It is used with words showing proximity

gaamaa samiipa.mnear the village.
Remark. in these examples, the Gen. may also be used.
(xiii)

Verbs meaning "to be born, to originate from" etc. govern the Abl.:

coraa jaayati bhaya.mfrom a thief fear arises.
(xiv)

 The following indeclinables govern the Abl.:

arakafar from, afar
aarakaa tehi bhagavaafar from them is the Blessed One;
upariabove, over
upari pabbataaover the mountain;
patiagainst, instead, in return
riteexcept, without;
a~n~natra, vinaawithout, except;
naanaadifferent, away from;
puthu and, before a vowel, puthagseparately, without, except;
aatill, as far as;
yavatill, as far as;
sahawith;
buddhasmaa pati saariputtoSariputta takes the place of the Buddha;
rite saddhammawithout the true Doctrine, etc.
(xv)

It should be noted that the Abl. is very frequently used, instead of the Inst.,

the Accus.,
the Gen. and
the Loc.,
e.g. vinaasaddhammaa, or vinaa saddhamma.m or vinaa saddhammena.

601.7. The Locative

(i)The Locative shows the place in or on which a thing or person is, or an action performed; it is therefore expressed in English by "in, on, upon, at."
kate nisiidati purisothe man is sitting on the mat;
thaliya.m odana.m pacati;he cooks the food in a cooking-pot.
(ii)

The Loc. shows the "cause, reason, or motive" of an action:

diipiicammesu ha~n~nantethe panther is killed for its skin;
ku~njaro dantesu ha~n~natethe elephant is killed for his tusks.
(iii)

It denotes time when an action takes place;

saaya.nhasamaye aagatohe came in the evening.
(iv)When the pre-eminence of an individual (thing or person) over the whole class to which he belongs is implied, as well as with adjectives in the superlative degree, the noun with respect to which such pre-eminence or such superlative degree of excellence is shown is put in the Loc. or in the Gen.:
manussesu khattiyo suuratamo,
manussaana.m khattiyo suuratamo
the k.satriya is the most valiant of men;
ka.nhaa gaavisu sampannakhiiratamaa
ka.nhaa gaavina.m sampannakhiiratamaa.
of cows, the black one abounds most in milk
(v)

The following words govern the Loc. and the Gen. as well:

saamiian owner, master;
issaroking, lord;
adhipatichief, lord;
daayaadoan heir;
patibhuusubstitute, surety;
pasuutooffspring, child;
kusaloclever, expert;
gonesu saamiian owner of oxen, or gonaana.m saamii, etc.
(vi)Words signifying "to be happy, contented, eager", govern the Loc., as well as the Inst.:
~naa.nasmi.m ussuko
~naa.nena ussako
eager for wisdom
~naa.nasmi.m pasiidito
~naa.nena pasiidito
contented with wisdom
(vii)

Words signifying "reverence, respect, love, delighting in, saluting, taking, seizing, striking, kissing, fond of, adoring," govern the Loc.:

paapasmi.m ramati manothe mind delights in evil;
bhikkhuusu abhivaadentithey salute the monks;
paade gahetvaa papaate khipatitook him by the feet and threw him in the precipice;
purisa.m siise paharatistruck the man on the head.
(viii)The Loc. is used sometimes to show that one does not take any account of something or person:
rudantasmi.m daarake pabbajihe left the world in spite of his son weeping.
The Genitive also may be used: rudantassa aarakassa pabbaji (See: Locative and Genitive Absolute).
(ix)

The Loc. is employed to denote superiority or inferiority, with the words "upa" and "adhi" respectively.

upa khaariya.m do.noa do.na is inferior to a khaari;
adhi brahmadatte pa~ncalaathe Pancalas are under Brahmadatta's supremacy;
adhi devesu buddhothe Buddha is above the gods.
(x)

It is used to denote "proximity":

nadiya.m sassa.mcorn near the river;
tassa pa.n.nasaalaaya hatthimaggo hotinear his leaf hut there is an elephant-track.
(xi)

The Loc. is used absolutely with a participle in the same case as itself (see, Absolute Construction).

(xii)

In lexicons, the Loc. is used to signify "in the sense of" ru sadde, (the root) ru, is used in the sense of making noise."

(xiii)

Words denoting "fitness, suitability" govern the Loc.:

tayi na yutta.mnot fit for thee
the Gen. is used in the same sense: tava na yutta.m.
(xiv)

The Loc. is extensively used instead of other Cases, and the students must be prepared to meet the Loc. where very often he would expect to find some other case.
Let him note that in almost all instances, the Case for which the Loc. stands may be and is, used.

(xv)The Loc. in used for the Gen, (see, above, v).
(xvi)It is used for the Inst.:
pattesu pi.n.daaya caraantithey go about with bowls for their food.
(xvii)

It is also used instead of the Dat.:

sa"nghe dinna.m mahapphala.moffering to the Clergy are very meritorious.
(xviii)The Loc. is used for the Ablative:
kadaliidesu gaje rakkhantithey keep off the elephants from the plantain-trees.
(xix)

The Loc. is frequently used adverbially;

atiiteformerly.

602.    8. The Vocatives   

The Vocative Case does not require any explanations: it is used exactly as in English.

603. The Genitive and Locative Absolute

(i)When a noun or a pronoun in the Locative or Genitive is used with a participle in the same case as itself, the construction is called, Locative Absolute and Genitive Absolute respectively. The Locative Absolute construction is met with much more often than the Genitive absolute. There is also found, now and then, a Nominative Absolute construction, but far less common than the other two.
 (ii)The Locative, Genitive and (sometimes) the Nominative Absolute, may often be translated by "when, while, since" and sometimes by "although":
tesu vivadantesu bodhisatto cintesiwhile they were disputing, the Future Buddha thought;
suriye attha"ngatewhen the sun had set, after sunset;
gavisu duyhamaanaasu gatohe went when the cows were being milked;
asaniyaa pi siise patantiyaaalthough the thunderbolt was falling on their head.
(iii)

sati, the Locative singular of santo, Pres. part of the verb atthi, to be, besides having the above meanings may also often be translated by "if, such being the case":

atthe satiif there be need
eva.m satisuch being the case;
payoge satiwhen there is occasion.
With Feminine words, sati is also used, although it should be, satiyaa (Fem.): pucchaaya sati, if the question be asked; ruciyaa sati, had he the desire, if he had the wish.
(iv)The Genitive Absolute is not quite so frequently used as the Loc. Absolute although found often enough:
saaku.nakassa gumbato jaala.m mocentass'evaeven while the fowler was disengaging the net from the bush;
tesa.m ki.lantaana.m yeva suriyattha"nigatavelaa jaataawhile even they were sporting, it became dusk.
(v)

There is also mentioned a so-called Nominative Absolute; gacchanto bhaaradvaajo so, addasaa ajjhuta.m isi.m, Bharadvaja having gone he .. etc., yaaymaano mahaaraajaa, addaasii tantarena ge, as the king was going, he. . . ., etc,

Remark. The Gen. Absolute is frequently used to show "disregard, contempt", it can then be translated by "in spite of, notwithstanding". For example see above (601, viii).

604.Syntax of the Adjective

(i)As has already been said, whenever an adjective is not in composition with another word, it must agree with the word it qualifies in number, gender and case.
(ii)

Adjectives in the comparative degree require an Ablative:

siila.m eva sutaa seyyovirtue is better than learning.
(iii)

Comparison is also expressed by an Abl. followed by an adjective in the positive degree:

maadhuraa paa.taliputtakehi abhirupaathe people of Madhura are more handsome than those of Paa.taliputta.
(iv)It is also expressed by the indeclinable vara.m, better, with an Abl.:
tato vara.mbetter than that.
(v)

When "the better of two" is to be expressed, a Gen. is used with the positive degree:

tumhaka.m dvinna.m ko bhaddakoof you two who is the better?
(vi)Superlative adjectives are used with the Gen. or the Loc, for examples see above (601, iv).

(vi) Syntax of Pronouns

 1. Personal Pronouns

605.

(i)The personal pronouns are used much in the same way as in English, and do not call for particular remarks, except, perhaps, the enclitic forms of aha.m and tva.m; (289-b, c; 290, c).
(ii)

The enclitic forms of aha.m: me and no, and those of tva.m: te and vo, are never used at the beginning of a sentence nor immediately before the particles ca, taa and eva:

detu melet him give to me;
tava vaa me hotube it thine or mine;
kamma.m no ni.t.thita.mour task is finished;
ko te dosowhat is thy fault?
kaha.m vo raajaawhere is your king?
(iii)

With verbs, the personal pronouns are frequently understood, as the endings of the tenses clearly indicate also the person as:

gacchati (he) goes= so gacchati;
gaccheyyaami, (I) should go= aha.m gaccheyyaami etc.
(iv)

The personal pronoun so, saa, ta.m is also used as a demonstrative and as an article. See Concord (589). Therefore, so puriso may mean according to the context: the man, or, that man.

(v)

Tasmaa (abl ), is used adverbially in the sense of "therefore accordingly, thereby": with the same meanings it is also followed by hi and ti ha (= iti ha):

tasmaa hi pa~n~naa ca dhanena seyyoand therefore is wisdom better than riches;
tasmaa ti ha bhikkhaveaccordingly, O monks!
(vi)The Inst. tena is used with the same meanings as tasmaa:
tena ta.m madhura.mtherefore, on that account, it is sweet.
Tena followed by hi means "well! very well! all right! well then!"
tena hi khaadaapessaami nan tivery well, then, I'll make you devour him.
(vii)

Na.m and ena.m (295, 300), are used when something or someone already mentioned is referred to. See (296).


2. Demonstrative Pronouns

606.

(i) eso, esaa, eta.m (298), refer to what is near, and mean: this;
esaa itthiithis woman;
nirupakaaro esaathis (fellow) is useless.
The same remarks apply to aya.m and asu, this.
Remark. esa is often used for eso, sa for so.
(ii) The neuter etad (= eta.m, 302), is used with the verb hoti and the Gen. of the person, and the expression is then equivalent to "to think":
tassa etad ahosihe thought... (lit he thought... (lit=of his this was).= of his this was).

3. The Relative

607.

(i) We have already explained the Relative (592); only a few of its most important peculiar uses need be mentioned here:
(ii) Yo (311) is used with the Indefinite koci (319):
yo kociwhoever, anyone;
ya.m ki~nciwhatsoever, anything. See (314-a, b).
(iii) The Neut. Sing. ya.m is frequently used adverbially in the sense of "as, that, because, since, seeing that, if, when "
ta.m bahu.m ya.m pi jiivasiit is much that thou livest.
(iv) The Inst. yena is used as an adverb, meaning "whereby, by which, for which, because":
yena na.m ga.nhissaamiby which I shall catch him.
(v) When motion to a definite place is expressed,yena, where, is used withtena, there:
yena bhagavaa, ten'upasa"nkatihe went to Buddha(lit. where was Buddha there he approached).
(vi) Yasmaa (Abl.), is used in the sense of "because" and is then generally followed by tasmaa, therefore;
yasmaa tva .m na jaanaasi tasmaa baalo'sii tibecause thou doth not understand, therefore art thou a fool.

4. The Interrogative

608.

(i) The interrogative pronoun ko (316), may be used by itself or with a noun or pronoun:
ko pana tva.mwho art thou?
ke etewho are these?
kaa daarikaawhich girl?
(ii) kena (Inst.) used with attho and the Dat. of the person, forms such expressions as "what do you want?" etc,:
kena te atthowhat are you in need of?
(iii) kena (Inst.) kasmaa (Abl.) and kissa (Gen.) are used adverbially with the meaning of "why? wherefore?"
 
(iv) ki.m is much used with the Inst. to express "what is the use of?"

ki.m me jiivitena

what is the use to me of life?

5. The Indefinite

609. The indefinite pronoun (319), does not present any peculiarity:

maa idha koci paavisilet nobody enter here;
ki~nci bhaya.many danger.

(vii) Repetition

610. To express "plurality, totality, distribution, variety, multiplicity," etc., words are sometimes repeated:

tesu tesu .thaanesuin various places;
ta.m ta.m kathaya maanaasaying this and this.

yo, thus repeated means "whoever, whatever, whichever":

ya.m ya.m gaama.mwhatever village;
itaraa ten'eva niyaamena yaa yaa. ki~nci katheti tassa tassa upari kacavara.m cha.d.desiand in this way the other (woman) threw the refuse on whomsoever said anything;
so di.t.thadi.t.thamanusse jiivitakkhaya.m paapetihe kills all whom he sees;
gatagata.t.thaanein every place
yena kenaby whatever...;
ubbahiiyati so soevery one is put to flight.

611. (viii)Syntax of Verbs

(i) The Concord of the verb with its subject has already been noticed (590, 1st).
 
(ii) The Present Tense denotes an action taking place now, a fact existing at the present time
so bhaayatihe is afraid;
saa pacatishe cooks.
(iii) The present tense often expresses the continuance of an action and is equivalent to the present progressive:
saa gabbhe nisiidatishe is sitting in her private room.
(iv) Habit, custom and general truths are expressed by the present tense  :
sabbe maranti,all (men) die;
bhikkhu siila.m aacaratia monk practises virtue.
(v) The present is sometimes used with a future signification:
ki.m karomiwhat shall I do?
(vi) The present is extremely frequent in narrations when recounting past events as if they were actually happening, this is called the Historical Present:
so pa~ncamaa.navakasataani sippa.m ugga.nhaapetihe taught five hundred young men (lit. he teaches).
(vii) When no interrogative particle is used, interrogation is sometimes expressed by placing the present tense at the beginning of the sentence:
socasi tva.m upaasakagrievest thou, O layman?
Remark. Other tenses may also be used in the same way to mark interrogation.

The Past Tense

612.

Perfect, Imperfect and Aorist.

(i) The Perfect and the Imperfect tenses present no difficulty, they are as a rule used in the sense of a general past, and they do not require any notice. Let it be borne in mind, however, that the Perfect is but seldom used; that the Imperfect, though more frequent than the Perfect, does seldom differ from it in meaning and last, that the Aorist has generally displaced these two tenses and superseded them.

(ii) The Aorist is the principal past tense in Paali and is therefore extensively used; it expresses indefinite past time, but also includes the Present day. The Aorist may be translated by the Present Perfect or the Past Indefinite (See 405):

catuppaaduu pi eka.m siiha.m raajaana.m aka.msuthe quadrupeds made a lion king;
mukhe paharistruck him on the mouth;
kena kaara.nena rodiwhy did you cry?
braahma.no e.lakena saddhi.m vicarithe brahmin walked about with the goat.

(iii) The indeclinable maa is used with the Aorist to express prohibition:

e.laka, maa bhaayiO! goat, fear not!
maa puna evaruupa.m akaasido not do so again;
taata, maa gamidear son, do not go.

Future Tense

613.

(i) The Future expresses simple futurity:
aha.m gacchissaamiI shall go;
te marissantithey will die.
(ii) The future is also used as a mild form of the Imperative, when courteously giving a command: ,
tva.m tassa bandhana.m dantehi khaadissasicut his bonds with thy teeth.
(iii) The future is used to express simple condition, with the particles ce, sace and yadi:
yadi tva.m yaagu.m pacissasi aha.m pivissaamiif thou wilt cook the gruel, I shall drink it;
so ta~n ce labhissati, tena saddhi.m gacchaif he gets it, go with him.
(iv) bhavissati, the 3rd. pers. sing. of bhavati, to be, is often used in the sense of "it must be that...: 
coraa pathama.m ~neva bherisadda.m sutvaa issarabheri bhavissatii ti palaayitvaathe thieves on first hearing the beating of the drum, (said) "It must be the drum of an official" and fled;
aya.m me putto bhavissatihe must be my son.
(v) bhavissati preceded by the negative particle na may be translated by "it cannot be"
naaya.m issarabheri bhavissatiThis cannot be an official's drum.
(vi) jaanissaami, the 3rd. pers sing of jaanaati, to know, is often used idiomatically in the sense of "I'll see":
hotu, pacchaa jaanissaamilet it be, I'll see (to it) afterwards.

The Optative

614.

(i) The Optative expresses "probability, capability, fitness, assent or permission, command, wish, condition" and is also used in laying down rules and precepts.
 
(ii) Fitness:
tva.m tattha gaccheyyaasiyou should go there.
(iii) Wish:
aha.m ima.m tumhaaka.m bhaajetvaa dadeyya.mI would divide and give it to you, but...
(iii) Wish:
aha.m ima.m tumhaaka.m bhaajetvaa dadeyya.mI would divide and give it to you, but...
(iv) Command:
tva.m pana ito pa.t.thaaya ovaadaanusaasaniya.m dadeyyaasibut thou hence forward, give us instructions and admonitions;
udarena nipajjeyyaasilie on thy belly.
(v) Probability:
api ca naama gaccheyyaamiI may go.
(vi) When expressing condition, it is usually preceded by ce, sace or yadi, if:
saami, sace imaaya velaaya tava sapatta.m passeyyaasi kin ti ta.m kareyyaasi?Lord, if, at this time thou should see thy enemy, what would thou do to him?
(vii) To express supposition, the word yathaa is sometimes used with the Optative:
yathaa mahaaraaja kocideva puriso padiipa.m padiipeyya,were, maharaja, a man to light a lamp...
(viii) Assent:
tva.m idaani gaccheyyaasithou may now go.

The Conditional

615. The Conditional expresses an action unable to be performed on account of some impediment in the way of its execution:

so ce ta.m yaana.m alabhissa agacchissaahe would go if he could get that vehicle;
bho satthavaasino, sace esa rukkhamuule ca"nkamanataapaso ajja naabhavissaa, sabbe mahaavilopa.m patta abhavissathaO! merchants, had not today this ascetic been walking to and fro at the foot of this tree you should all have been completely pillaged.

The Imperative

616.

(i) The Imperative is used in giving commands:
tena hi, gacchavery well, go!
(ii) It expresses entreaty:
bhante bhagavaa apposukko viharatuLord, let the Blessed One now live free from cares.

(iii) Benedictions, blessings:

vassasata.m, jiivamay you live a hundred years!
(iv) With maa prefixed, the Imperative 2nd person expresses simple prohibition(see Aorist 612, iii)
maa eva.m karothado not do so!
(v) The Imperative 3rd person sing. of bhavati, to be, is often used idiomatically, with the meaning of "very well":
hotu, aha.m ja.nissaamivery well I'll see (to it).

617.The Infinitive

(i) The Infinitive shows "purpose, motive intention". It is used actively as well as passively.
uuyyaanapaalo cha.d.detu.m upaaya.m na passatithe gardener saw no means of throwing (them) away;
ta.m gantu.m, na dassaamiI will not let him go.

(ii) The Infinitive is used with verbs meaning "to wish to try or strive, to begin, to be able":

saa roditu.m aarabhishe began to cry;
na koci mayaa saddhi.m sallapitu.m sakkotino one can converse with me;
saa pavisitu.m na icchatishe did not wish to enter;
so ta.m ukkhipitu.m ussahatihe endeavoured to lift it.
(iii) The verb dadaati to give, after an Inf. means "to let, to allow" and the verb labhati, to obtain, means "to be allowed":
ta.m paharitu.m na dassaamiI will not allow him to be struck;
gehabahi nikkhamitu.m alabhantonot being allowed to go out of the house.

(iv) Verbs like va.t.tati, to behove, to be fit, proper, and adjectives like yu.t.to, having the same meaning, are much used with the Inf.; in the case of va.t.tati, the Instrumentive is used of the person who ought to do the act:

ettha daani mayaa vasitu.m vattatiit now behoves me to live;

it is used also impersonally:

ta.m haritu.m va.t.tatithe best is to kill him, it is proper, fit, to kill him.
eva.m kathetu.m na yu.t.ta.mit is not proper to speak thus.
(v) The indeclinable labbha, possible, allowable and sakkaa, possible, able, are used wih the Inf.: sakkaa is used much in the same way as va.t.tati, that is, actively or passively, and often with the Inst. of the person; the verb hoti frequently follows sakkaa:
sakkaa hoti methuna.m dhamma.m pa.tisevitu.mit is possible to practise fornication;
etasmi.m .thaane na sakkaa vasitu.mit is impossible to live in this place;
ida.m na labbhhaa eva.m katu.mit is not possible to do it in this way.

(vi) When kaamo, willing, desirous, is compounded with an Inf., final .m of the Inf. is dropped:

devataaya balikamma.m kaaretukaamowishing to make an offering to the god.

The Gerund

618.

(i) The Gerund always denotes an action completed before another; it may be translated by the word "having" followed by a past participle as: gantvaa, having gone; or by the past tense followed by the conjunction "and" : gantvaa, he went and... The gerund, therefore, being very extensively used, is the most common connective in Paali , and practically does away with the Paali conjunction equivalent to the English "and" connecting two sentences.
so ta.m ukkhipitvaa ghara.m netvaa catudhaa vibhajitvaa daanaadiini pu~n~naani katvaa yathaakamma.m gatoHe lifted it up, took it home, divided into four parts and, practising alms-giving and other good deeds, went according to his deeds.
(ii) The word va (= eva) following a gerund, may be translated by "as soon as":
ta.m vacana.m sutvaa vaas soon as he heard these words...;
so vaandro attano putta.m disvaa vathe monkey, as soon as he saw his offspring...

(iii) The particle "api" coming after a gerund, may be translated by "although":

akata~n~nuu puggalo cakkavattirajja.m datvaa pi tosetu.m na sakkaaan ungrateful man cannot be satisfied although he be given universal sovereignty.
(iv) Before a gerund, a may be translated by "without":
papa~nca.m akatvaawithout making delays, without any delay;
eka.m pi akilametvaawithout harming even one person.

(v) Some gerunds are used prepositionally; the principal of them are:

patthaayasince, beginning from, from, after;
sandhaayawith reference to, concerning;
aarabbhaconcerning, with reference to;
sa~nciccaintentionally;
asallakkhetvaainadvertently, unawares;
nissaaya, upanissaayaon account of, through, near;
aadaayawith;
paticcaby, through, on account of;
.thapetvaaexcept, excepting.
(vi) The Gerund may sometimes be translated by the present participle;
idha aagantvaa aha.m cora.m passi.mcoming here I saw the thief.
(vii) The Gerund may have a passive signification:
coraje.t.thakena gahetvaahaving been seized by the robber chief.

The Participles

619.  1. The Present Participle

(i) The Present Participle may generally be translated by "while, whilst," which sense is inherent in it; this participle always expresses contemporaneity of action:
attano gaama.m gacchanto coraa.tavi.m patvaawhile going to his village he came upon a forest inhabited by thieves;
tattha gantvaa maatara.m pa.tijagganto vaasa.m kappesihe went and, taking care of his mother, took up his abode there.
(ii) It must be remembered that participles are of the nature of adjectives (439) and must agree with the word they qualify in the same way as adjectives:
aviiciniraya.m gacchantaa sattaa...persons going to the Avici Hell;
aagacchanta.m ta.m disvaa pialthough he saw him coming.
(iii) The present participle is sometimes used substantively, and may be translated by "he who" (does the action expressed by the verb):
ida.m pana paraloka.m gacchantassa patheyya.m bhavissatibut this will be provisions for him who goes to the other world:
paraloka.m gacchanto eka.m kahaapa.na.m pi gahetvaa na gacchatihe who goes to the other world does not take even one cent with him.
(iv) The present participle may also sometimes be translated by a conditional clause: 
ta.m labhanto jiivissami alabhanto idh' eva marissaamiif I obtain her I shall live; if not, in this very spot shall I die;
addhamaase sahassa.m labhanto upa.t.thahissaami devaif I get a thousand every fortnight, I'll serve thee, Lord;
eva.m karonto lacchasi akaronto na lacchasiif you do so you'll get it, if not, you will not get it.
(v) The particle pi (=api) following a pres. part. may be rendered by "although":
pitaraa vaariyamaano pialthough prevented by his father;
ta.m apassanto pialthough not seeing him.

620.  2. The Past Participles

(i) There are two past participles, the Perfect Active (231, 465) and the Passive Perfect (450).
 
(ii) The perfect active participle presents no difficulty whatever:
so siiha.m aadinnavaahe having captured the lion;
bhatta.m bhuttaaviihaving taken his meal.

(iii) The passive perfect participle is very often used as a predicate instead of a finite verb (See Concord of Subject and Predicate 590); it can then be translated by a past tense.

 
(iv) The P.P.P. of roots implying motion, and of transitive roots, takes an accusative;
sakanivaasa.m eva gatohe went to his own place.
(v) When the P.P.P; is thus used predicatively, the verb "hoti," to be, is generally understood after it.
 

(vi) The agent of a P.P.P. is as a rule put in the Instrumentive case:

tayaa pa~nha.m pu.t.tha.mby her the question was asked, she asked the question;
saasana.m mayaa likkhita.ma letter has been written by me, I have etc.
(vii) Not seldom the P.P.P. may be translated by a pres. participle:
tato uppatito vijjullata viya vijjotamaano paratiire a.t.thaasi,springing from there, he reached the other shore as a lightning flash.

621.  3. The Future Participle

(i) The future Participle (449) denotes that the agent is about to perform the action or undergo the state expressed by the root:
ra.t.thaa ra.t.tha.m vicarissa.mI am going (= I am about to go) from kingdom to kingdom;
ta.m gantha.m racissa.m aha.mI am about to compose that book.
(ii) It also shows purpose, intention, as may be seen by the 2nd example in (i) above.
 
(iii) It shows simple futurity: naaha.m puna upessa.m gabbhaseyya.m, I shall not be reborn again.

622.  4. The Future Passive Participle

(i) The Future Passive Participle conveys the idea of "fitness, necessity, obligation;" it denotes that what is expressed by the root is to be, or ought to be, or is fit to be or must be done or undergone:
mayaa kattabba.m kamma.m ni.t.thita.mthe work which was to be done by me is finished;
sace so deso uklaapo hoti so deso sammajjitabboif the place be dirty it ought to be swept;
na navaa bhikkhuu aasanena pa.tibaahetabbaayoung monks should not be ousted from their seat.
(ii) From the above examples, it will be seen that the F.P.P. must agree with the subject in gender, case and number.
 

(iii) It is much used impersonally:

kinnu kattabba.mwhat is to be done?
ettha ca imaani suttaani dassetabbaaniand in this connection these passages (from the Scriptures) should be pointed out;
iminaa nayena veditabboit must be understood in this way.
(iv) It will be, from the above examples, remarked, that the agent is put in the Instrumentive.
 
(v) bhavitabba.m, used with the Inst. of the thing or person, is frequently used in the sense of "it must be that, one should or ought to'':
majjhatten'eva bhavitabba.mone should be indifferent to...;
visayojitaaya etaaya bhavitabba.mthis must have been mixed with poison.

(ix) Syntax of lndeclinables

623.

(i) The following are used correlatively:
yathaa, as..athaa, so;
yavaa, so long...tavaa, that long, as long as;
yadaa, when..tadaa, then;
yattha, where;attha, there.
(ii)
ca...ca...both...and,
so ca aha~n caboth he and I.
vaa...vaa..whether...or;
bhaasati vaa karoti vaawhether he speaks or acts.
pi..pi...both...and
si~ncati pi si~ncaapeti piboth sprinkles and causes to sprinkle.

(iii) ca....ca...., and vaa...vaa...when in a negative sentence, are equivalent to: neither...nor.

 
(iv) ca and vaa used singly, never come at the beginning of a sentence.
 
(v) eva, and, before a vowel yeva is used to emphasize the idea expressed by a word, and may be translated by "very, just, quite, exactly, as soon as":
idaani evajust now;
attano yevaone's very own.
yeva, coming after a verb, is not always easy to translate into English, but in the majority of cases, it may be rendered by "on, to go on, continue," etc.:
kathenti yevathey went on talking.
(vi) yadi if, is used in conditional sentences with the Present., the Future, the Optative and the Conditional.
yadi eva.m, yajj' eva.mif so, in that case;
vaa...yadi vaa...whether...or ;
gaame vaa yadi v'aara~n~newhether in the village or in the forest.
Remark. The syntax of the most important indeclinables has been given in "Syntax of Substantives."

624. Direct and Indirect Narration

(i) The oblique construction in Paali is expressed by placing the particle iti, so, thus, after the words in the direct construction as they would stand in English, that is, at the end of the words quoted:
kaha.m so etarahi ti pucchihe asked, "Where is he now?"
(ii) iti is generally abbreviated to: ti, and the last vowel of the quotation, if short, is lengthened before it:
saadhuu tihe said "very well!"
(iii) Verbs of "saying, telling, asking, naming, knowing, thinking," are generally used with iti; those verbs may be:
(1) Placed after the particle iti:
te "saadhuu" ti vatvaathey said "Very well."
(2) Before the words quoted:
so pucchi "ki.m jaanaasi tvan" tihe asked "What do you know?"
(3) The verb is frequently omitted altogether:
maaressaami nan" ti(he thought, or said) "I'll kill him!"
(4) When iti or ti, is followed by a vowel, sandhi takes place regularly:
iti + eva.m = icceva.mkvaci + iti = kvaciiti.
(5) Often, iti has the sense of "because, with the intention of "showing "cause, motive, intention, purpose:"
"jiivitu.m asakkontaa" tibecause (we) are unable to make a living;
"makasa.m paharissaami" ti pitu matthaka.m dvidhaa bhindiintending to kill the mosquito he broke his father's head in two.

625. Interrogation and Negation

(i) The negative particle is na:
imasmi.m sare sudaka.m n'atthithere is no water in this lake;
na a~n~naasidid not thou know?
se.t.thinaa saddhi.m kathetu.m na sakkomiI am unable to speak with the banker.

(ii) With an Optative, na is used in prohibition: na hatthisaala.m gaccheyya, let him not go to the elephant-shed.

 
(iii) na may form the first part of a compound:
 naagamana.m (= n + aagamanam)non-arrival;
na bhikkhua non-monk, a layman.
(iv) Two negatives make an affirmative:
bheri.m na na vaadeyyaanot that he may not beat the drum (he may therefore beat it).
(v) no, is also used in negation in the same way as na:
no janaatihe does not know.
(vi) no, followed by na, expresses a strong affirmative:
no na dhameyyahe should surely blow (the conch);
no nappahotihe is most certainly able.
(vii) Interrogation is expressed by using interrogative adverbs or pronouns as
kasmaawhy? wherefore?
kissa, kenawhy?
kowho? etc.

(viii) Also by means of interrogative particles.

 
(ix) api, when used in interrogation, is always placed first in the sentence:
ap'avuso, amhaakam satthaara.m jaanaasido you, Sir, know our Teacher?
(x) followed by nu kho, it expresses a very emphatic interrogation:
api nu kho koci upaddavo hotiwell, have you any cause of distress?
(xi) nu, I wonder! Pray? nu, is often followed by kho:
kiidiso nu kho paralokoI wonder what the next world is like?
coraa nu atthiare there thieves?
(xii) Preceded by na, it expresses emphatic interrogation:
na nu'ha .m yodhoam I not a warrior?
(xiii) Interrogation is also expressed by placing the verb first in the sentence:
socasi upaasakagrievest thou layman?
(xiv) Sometimes the mere tone of voice is sufficient to express interrogation:
supa.m labhidid thou get broth?

Interjections

(i) The principal interjections are:
haaalas! ah!
handacome!
a"ngaindeed! oh!
bhofriend! Sir! I say!
hare, sirrah! amaayes! truly! indeed!
ahoalas! oh! (538).
(ii) bha.ne, first pers. sing. Reflective of bha.nati, to say, is used as an interjection with the meaning of "to be sure! I say there!"
bha.ne"to be sure! I say there!"
(iii) ma~n~ne, 1st. pers. sing. Reflective of ma~n~nati, to think, is also used as an interjection in the sense of "methinks! I dare say! I suppose!"
ma~n~ne"methinks! I dare say! I suppose!"

(Original file downloaded from www.tipitaka.net/pali/grammar/. Tabulation follows the pdf file located at www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/paligram.pdf .)