Re: Slavery and Slave trade in Antiquity II: *xolp-/*kolp-

Polybius, Histories, IV, 38:
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Polybius/4*.html
'The site of Byzantium is as regards the sea more favourable security and prosperity than that of any other city in the world known to us, but as regards the land it is most disadvantageous in both respects. For, as concerning the sea, it completely blocks the mouth of the Pontus in such a manner that no one can sail in or out without the consent of the Byzantines. So that they have complete control over the supply of all those many products furnished by the Pontus which men in general require in their daily life. For as regards necessities it is an undisputed fact that most plentiful supplies and best qualities of cattle and slaves reach us from the countries lying round the Pontus, while among luxuries the same countries furnish us with abundance of honey, wax, and preserved fish, while of the superfluous produce of our countries they take olive-oil and every kind of wine. As for corn there is a give-andâ€`take, they sometimes supplying us when we require it and sometimes importing it from us.'

Let's look at two of the export articles, honey and wax, which derive from the same activity, apiculture

On honey:
http://tech.dir.groups.yahoo.com/group/cybalist/message/53996

UEW

mekše "bee, apis mellifìca" Finno-Ugrian

Finnish mehiläinen, mehiäinen "honey bee";
Estonian (dial.) mehiläne, mehine "bee" |

Mordvin E. mekš, mäkš, M meš |

Mari KB U B mükš |

Udmurt S muš, K mùš, muš, (Wichm.) G muš |

Komi P moš, V PO muš : maľa-m. "bee (P V PO), bumble bee (?) (V)" (maľa < ma "honey") |

Hungarian méh (dial. mÑ`^he, mév, mihe, míhe) "bee".

- IE *mekš-: Sanskrit mákşā- "bee", mákşikā- id., Avestan maχšī- "fly".

Finnish läinen, äinen and Estonian läne, ine are derivational suffixes. Hungarian h, v are hiatus fillers.
The apiculture in Finno-Ugrian times was presumably a migrant forest apiculture, corresponding to the way of life of gatherers.
According to
O. Schrader (Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde2 1923 29; 139, 314),
Burrow (The Sanskrit Language 1973: 25) and
Moór (ALH 7: 150)
the Aryan word was taken over from Finno-Ugrian, since the word is unknown in the other IE languages. But since the Finno-Ugrian word for "honey" (s. *mete "honey..." Finno-Ugrian) is taken over from IE, it is more likely that also "bee" is an IE loanword.


mäkз "honey" Finno-Ugrian

? Mari KBU mü, B müj "honey" |

Khanty (OL 2) V mäγwoj (woj "fat"), DN maχ, Kaz. maw (> Nenets T māw) |

Mansi (ÁKE 467) N mai` (maγ-).

Although the Mari word fits here phonetically (Finno-Ugrian *k > Mari 0, j), in a cultural history perspective it can hardly be separated from the word family *mete "honey" Finno-Ugrian.
The Ob-Ugrians got to know honey through trade.
The Ob-Ugrian words have by several authors
(Ahlqvist Kulturw. 43;
Anderson, Stud. 146;
Munkácsi: Ethn. 5: 136, ÁKE 466;
Jacobsohn, ArUgrof. 11 etc.)
erroneously been placed in the word family *mete "honey" Finno-Ugrian.



majδ'з "tree sap" <-> "milk" FP
?[Finnish
maito "milk; (Unhola, given to Toiv.: Vir. 1918:79) (dial.) mahla; "tree sap, birch sap, birch water",
maiti "fish milk",
maitilas "cream" (> Saami L mai'tu "milk", K (1964) T majta, Kld. majt; Ingrian > ? Votian dial. maito);
Estonian (SKES dial.) mait (pl. maidud) "cream" |

? Udmurt S meľ "tree honey, sweet tree sap (eg. on silver fir in hot weather)".

Finnish o and i are derivational suffixes.
The vowel correspondence is irregular. Udmurt e goes regularly back to Finno-Ugrian *e or *o. It is possible that a phonetic change (*a >) *o > *o > e took place in early Proto Permian under the influence of the *j in inlaut (cf. E. Itkonen: FUF 31:298).
For the semantics cf. Lithuanian sulà "birch sap" ~ Irish suth "milk".



mete "honey, drink fermented on honey" Finno-Ugrian
Finnish mesi (gen. meden) "honey, mead"
(> Saami N miettâ -Ä`- "honey", L mieta, K T Kld. mÄ«tt, Not. mieht);
Estonian mesi (gen. mee) "honey" |

Mordvin E meď, mäď, M meď |

? Mari KBU mü, B müj |

Udmurt S mu. K mu; S mu-sə^r, K mu-sər "mead" (sur "beer") |

Komi S P PO ma "honey" (> Nenets Sj. mā) |

Hungarian méz.

< IE: *medhu :
Sanskrit mádhu "sweet drink, mead; honey",
Avestan maδu- "honey",
Greek μέθυ "wine",
Russian ме¨д "honey, mead".

Whether the Mari word belongs here, is questionable for phonetic reasons (s. also *mäkз "honey" Finno-Ugrian).
Khanty Vj. möt "(bee) honey" (N. Sebestyén: NyIOK 1: 405, ALH 1: 341) does not belong here, since it is taken over from Russian мÑ`д.
For the words
Khanty V mäγ : mäγwoj and
Mansi N ma`i (stem: maγ-) "honey"
placed here by several researchers
(Anderson, Stud. 146;
Munkácsi: Ethn. 5: 136,
ÁKE 467;
Jacobsohn, ArUgrof. 11)
s. *mäkз "honey" Finno-Ugrian.


Pokorny
mak^o- or mok^-o-(-lo-, -ko-, diminutive formants) "gadfly, gnat".
Sanskrit maśáka- m. "gadfly, gnat",
Lithuanian maśalas "gnat",
Latvian masalas "horsefly",
and further
Russian mosόlitь "pester, beggar obnoxiously" (metaphorically like an obnoxious swarm of gnats),
and with another formant (*mosъtь?)
Upper Sorbian mosćίć so, mosćeć so "swarm (like gnats)",
as well as also
Lithuanian mašόju, -ti "have offspring";
cf. with velar the Aryan family of
Sanskrit mákşa- m., makşā f. "fly"
Avestan maxśi- "fly, gnat" etc.,
and
Lithuanian mãkatas "black fly".


médhu n. "honey; esp. mead";
Lithuanian nominalized adjective "sweet".
Sanskrit mádhu- n. "honey, mead"
(further
mádhu- "sweet";
madh(u)v-ád- "honey eater":
Old Church Slavonic medv-ědь "bear");
Avestan maδu- n. "berry wine";
Greek μέθυ "wine"
(from "intoxicating drink"; the sense "honey" has withdrawn to μέλι);
μεθύω "am drunk", μεθύσκω "make drunk";
Old Irish mid (gen. medo),
Welsh medd,
Old Cornish (Plur.?) medu,
Breton mez "mead",
Middle Irish medb "intoxicating" (*medhuo-),
Welsh meddw "intoxicated",
Breton mezo ds., mezvi "intoxicate";
ON mjo,ðr, OE meodo, OHG metu m. "mead";
Lithuanian medùs m. "honey" (mìdus "mead" from Gothic *midus),
Latvian mędus "honey, mead",
Old Prussian meddo (*medu) "honey";
Old Bulgarian medъ (gen. medu and meda) "honey'
(further Old Serbian o-mèditi se "spoil, eg. of fat",
Lithuanian "become sweetly, bland or ferment);
Tocharian B mit "honey".

On competition with *melit "honey" (never "honey mead") and on Finno-Ugrian comparisons (Finnish mete-, Saami mītt, Mordvin m´eď; Chinese mī4 "honey") s. Gauthiot MSL. 16, 268 ff., Schrader RL. 85, 2139.



meli-t, gen. mel-nés "honey" n.
Armenian mełr "honey", gen. mełu (-u stem presumably after *medhu), mełu, gen. mełui "bee";
Scythian μελίτιον• πόμα τι Σκυθικόν Hes.;
Greek μέλι, -tos "honey", μελισσα, Attic -ττα. "bee" ("μελιτyα or *μελι-λιχyα "honey­ licker" f.), βλίττω "cut honeycomb" (*mlit-yō);
cf. μείλιχος, Attic μι:λίχιος "soft";
Albanian mjal, mjaltë (*melitom) "honey";
Latin mel, mellis (*melnés) "honey", mulsus "cooked or boiled with honey" (*melsos; old imitation *saldtos, salsus);
Old Irish mil "honey" (*melit from *meli, from which gen. mela), Welsh Cornish Breton mel ds.; Irish milis, Welsh melys "sweet", Gaulish PN MeliÄ`Ä`us, Melissus;
also Welsh etc. melyn "yellowish" is probably "honey colored" (s. under mel- color word);
Gothic miliþ (*melitom) "honey", OE mildÄ"aw "nectar", OE milisc "honey sweet";
Hittite mi-li-t "honey".


2. mū-, mus- onomat. for "gnat, fly".
Armenian mun, gen. mnoy "gnat" (*mus- or *mu-no-);
Albanian mü-zë, mi-zë (zë diminutive suffix) "gnat":
Greek μυι~α (*μυσ-yα) "fly";
Latin musca
ON my: n. (*mūja-) "gnat";
Swedish mygg, mygga,
OE mycg,
OS muggia,
OHG mucka "gnat" (*mukyá:);
mit -s- gotländ. mausa (*mūsa),
Flemish meuzie (*musī) ;
Lithuanian musė~,
Old Prussian muso,
Latvian mu~sa, muša "fly";
Old Bulgarian mucha "fly" (*mousā), mъšica "gnat".


mūs "mouse" also "muscle" (older *mŭs, musόs from *meus, musόs).
Sanskrit mú:ş- m. "mouse, rat",
Persian mūš "mouse";
Armenian mu-kn "mouse, muscle";
Greek μυ~ς (μυ`ος, μυν nach ´υ~ς, ´υ`ος, ´υ~ν) "mouse", also "muscle";
Albanian mī "mouse",
Latin mūs m. "mouse" (mūrīnus : MHG miusīn "of mice");
OHG MHG OS MLG ON OE mūs "mouse, muscle" (consonant stem)
Old Bulgarian myšь f. "mouse".

Often used of body parts:
Armenian mukn "muscle",
Greek μυ~ς "muscle", μυών "muscular part of the body" (whence also "voluptuous woman" in Greek μυωνία), μύαξ, -ακος m. "mussel, spoon" :
Latin mūrex "purple murex";
Latin musculus ds., "muscle",
OHG etc. mūs "muscle, esp. of the upper arm",
MLG mūs bes. "fleshy part of thumb",
German Maus, Mäuschen,
Old Bulgarian myšьca "βραχίων";
on the other side
Sanskrit muşká- m. "testicle, female pudenda",
Modern Persian mušk "castoreum" (Greek μόσχος, German Moschus "musk" is from Persian);
Greek μύσχον "genital";
probably belongs with
Sanskrit muşņati "steels, robs" etc., s. under 2. meu- "push away".


It seems the IE sense of *muN-s- etc is "vermin", the Finno-Ugrian one is "bee".


http://tech.dir.groups.yahoo.com/group/cybalist/message/21664 (?)

Note the dh/l alternation *medh-/*melit-
http://tech.dir.groups.yahoo.com/group/cybalist/message/59603


The continuation, on beeswax, is here:

Christian Carpelan, Asko Parpola:

EMERGENCE, CONTACTS AND DISPERSAL OF PROTO-INDO-EUROPEAN, PROTO-URALIC
AND PROTO-ARYAN IN ARCHAEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE.

'BEESWAX: A NEW INDO-ARYAN ETYMOLOGY FOR A VOLGA-PERMIC WORD
Beeswax, which keeps indefinitely, is easily transported, and has various technical uses, especially in metallurgy, was the second most important export article after fur in ancient and medieval Russia. Before the coming of Christi­anity in the 10th century AD, Russia exported much of its beeswax to Byzantium and beyond, for churches and monasteries that needed wax for candles. But as early as the 5th century BC, Scythia was one of the main exporters of beeswax. The Scythians also used wax for coating the body of their king when he died, so that it could be put on a wagon and carried around all the subject nations before the burial (Herodotus 4,71). According to Herodotus (1,140,2), the Persians, too, coated the dead body with wax before burying it in the ground. (Crane 1999: 538.)

Besides mead, beeswax in the form of a sacred candle occupied a central position in the religion of the Finno-Ugric peoples of the Oka, mid-Volga and Kama region, who had beekeeping as one of their main occupations. The mead and wax-candle accompanied practically all of their ceremonies. Thus a candle was lighted in front of the honey vat after the honey harvest had been taken home, with prayers addressed to the God of the Bees, and to the Bee-Mother, and so on. Each clan further had its own clan candle lighted once a year, during Easter, when the dead ancestors were remembered. (Hämäläinen 1937.)

Beeswax produced in great quantities in the forest region of the mid-Volga was certainly a major incentive for the metallurgists of the early Aryan speakers to get this region under their control. The smiths needed beeswax to make moulds for casting metal (cf. Crane 1999: 529ff.). There was some metallurgy in the mid-Volga region as early as the Volosovo culture, but it reached another level in the succeeding Balanovo and Abashevo cultures.

Estonian and Finnish vaha < *vakša "beeswax"
is derived from
Proto-Baltic *vaška- (Lithuanian vãškas, Latvian vasks "wax"),
which like Old Slavon­ic vosku and Russian vosk comes from
Proto-Indo-European *wosko-;
Proto-Germanic *waχsa comes from the variant
*wokso-. (Cf. Mallory & Adams 1997: 637; SSA III, p. 388.)

Another word for "beeswax" in Finno-Ugric lan­guages,
Estonian kärg,
Mordvin k'eras,
Mari käräš, karaš, karas and
Udmurt karas, is likewise of Baltic origin, cf.
Lithuanian kory~s "honey-comb",
Latvian kādre(s) "honey-comb": the vowel of the first syllable can only come from Baltic *ā, not from *e in
Greek ke:rós "wax", ke:ríon "honey-comb", and
Latin cera "wax" (which is a loanword from Greek), whence
Irish ce:ir "wax" and
Welsh cwyr "wax";
the Turkic languages of the Volga region have borrowed the word from Finno-Ugric:
Kazan käräz, käräs,
Bashkir kärä-, Chuvas karas "honey­comb" (cf. Räsänen 1969: 256).

In the Volga-Permic languages there is yet another appellation for "bees­wax" that has been thought to be the old native Finno-Ugric word, apparently because no external etymology has been proposed for it so far (cf. Linnus 1939: 474; Toivonen 1953: 17-18; Paasonen 1948: 122): Mordvin (Moksha dialect) šta, (Erzya dialect) kšta, šta, Mari šište, Udmurt śuś < *śuśt, Komi śiś (śiśt-, śiśk-, śiś-), ma-siś; all these words denote "beeswax", but in Komi the usual meaning is "wax candle, light" (the word ma in the compound ma-sis means "honey"). Heikki Paasonen (1903: 112) reconstructed the protoform as *śikšta or *šiks[']ta. Károly Rédei in his Uralisches etymologisches Wörterbuch (1988-91, II: 785-786), summarizing twelve scholars' studies of these words (references are given) gives as the reconstruction *šikśte; he notes, however, that while it is possible to derive the forms of all the languages from this reconstruction, its k is based on the Mordvin dialectal variant only, and this k may be just an epenthetic glide that has come into being inside the word; moreover, the s in the middle of the word has caused an assimilation *š > ś at the beginning of the word in Permic languages, while in the Komi compound ma-sis, a dissimilation *ś > s has taken place; and the change *i > u in Udmurt is irregular. But the assimilation *s > s in Permic may have taken place in the middle of the word as well as at the beginning, because in Mari *ś always became s at the beginning of a word and inside the word, s in front of voiceless stops, while original *s was preserved in these positions (cf. Bereczki 1988: 335). In the Mordvin words the vowel has first been reduced in the unstressed first syllable and then dropped, cf. E kšna, E M šna < *šěkšna < *šukšna "strap" (cf. Itkonen 1945: 168; Bereczki 1988: 321). In this Baltic loanword the -k- is etymological (cf. Lithuanian šikšnà, Latvian siksna "strap"), but in the "wax" word it may be due to the analogy of this "very similar" word (cf. Jacobsohn 1922: 166). Thus it seems that the reconstruction of the word for "wax" could equally well be *śišta. That no extra-Uralic etymology for this word has been suggested is not surprising, because Indo-European etymological dictionaries refer, if at all, only to Albanian huall, hoje "honey-comb" and dyllë "wax" in addition to the two etyma mentioned earlier (*wokso/*wosko and *kār-/*ker-).

In Indian sources, a formally and semantically perfect match can be found for
Proto-Volga-Permic *śišta "beeswax", namely
Sanskrit śişţá- < Proto-Aryan *śištá-,
preterite participle regularly formed with the suffix -tá- from the verbal root śiş- "to leave (over)". In Ra:ma:yan.a 5,60,10, "beeswax" is called madhu-śişţa, literally "what is left over of honey" and in some other texts synonymous terms madhu:cchişţa (with the preverb ud- added to śişţa, which is usual when in the meaning "to leave over") and madhu-śeşa (śeşa "leftovers, remainder" being a noun derived from the root śiş-). Śişţa- is used as a neuter noun meaning "remainder, remnant" in Vedic texts (cf. Śatapatha-Brāhman.a 11,5,4,18: interest­ingly, this passage speaks of eating honey). Sanskrit śişţa- has become siţţha-"left over, remainder" in Middle Indo-Aryan; its cognates in Modern Indo-Aryan languages usually mean "dregs", but in Oriya also "sediment at bottom of oil pot", in Punjabi "expressed sugar-cane", in Pahari "remains of pressed oil­seed", and in Singhalese "wax" (cf. Turner 1966, nos. 12478 and 12480).

There is an exact correspondence even between the Sanskrit compound madhu-śişţa- "beeswax" and the Komi compound ma-sis "beeswax", for Komi ma corresponding to Udmurt mu goes back to Proto-Permic *mo and Proto-Finno-Ugric *mete "honey", just as Komi va corresponding to Udmurt vu goes back to Proto-Permic *wo and Proto-Uralic *wete "water" (cf. Itkonen 1953-54: 319-320).

Besides, there is the following undoubtedly related etymon in Indo-Aryan:
Sanskrit śiktha-, siktha-, sikthaka- n.,
Middle Indo-Aryan sittha-, sitthaka-, sitthaya- n.,
Kashmiri syothu m. and
Lahnda and Punjabi sittha: m.,
all meaning "beeswax" (cf. Turner 1966, no. 13390).
This variant suggests contamination by
Sanskrit siktá-
(Middle Indo-Aryan sitta-, whence
Khowar sit "silt, dregs", cf. Turner 1966, no. 13388):
the latter is the past participle of the verb sic- "to pour (out) (something liquid)", which is used also of "casting liquid metal" (cf. Atharva-Veda 11,10,12-13; Taittiri:ya-Sam.hita: 2,4,12,5; 2,5,2,2; Aitareya-Bra:hman.a 4,1; all these texts speak of casting the demon-destroying thunder­bolt-weapon). Beeswax plays a central role in the lost-wax method of metal casting, which was used in Abashevo metallurgy. If the contamination of *śišta and *sikta took place in the (Pre-)Proto-Indo-Aryan language of the Abashevo culture, it offers yet another possibility to explain the epenthetic -k- in the Erzya Mordvin variant kšta "beeswax".

The formal and semantic match between these Volga-Permic and Indo-Aryan words for "beeswax" is so close that there can hardly be doubt about this etymology. It is particularly significant, because these words, like the very root śiş- < *ćiš- "to leave (over)" (possibly < PIE * k'(e)i-s- "to leave lying") with all its verbal and nominal derivatives, are missing in the entire Iranian branch. Thus the Volga-Permic word can hardly be from an early Iranian language, and strongly suggests that the Abashevo culture was dominated by Aryans belong­ing to the 'Indo-Aryan' branch. Several Finno-Ugric loanwords have previously been suspected to be of specifically Proto-Indo-Aryan origin (cf. Koivulehto 1999a: 227), but the new etymology narrows the Proto-Indo-Aryan affinity down to the Abashevo culture. Among the other early Proto-Indo-Aryan loan­words is *ora "awl" < Proto-Aryan *á:ra: = Sanskrit á:ra: "awl" (cf. Koivulehto 1987: 206-207), which is likewise not found in the Iranian branch at all. Also Proto-Finno-Ugric *vaśara "hammer, axe" (cf. Joki 1973: 339) on account of its palatalized sibilant is from Proto-Aryan or Proto-Indo-Aryan rather than Proto-Iranian, where depalatalization took place (cf. Mayrhofer 1989: 4, 6), cf. Sanskrit vajra "thunder-bolt, weapon of Indra the god of thunder and war" versus Avestan vazra "mace, the weapon of the god Mithra", possibly from the Proto-Indo-European *weg´- "become powerful" (LIV, pp. 601-602). The bronze awl and axe are tools which certainly became common in the middle-Volga area with the Abashevo culture.

In Proto-Volga-Permic *śišta "beeswax", the Proto-Finno-Ugric palatal sibilant *ś corresponds to the Proto(-Indo)-Aryan palatal affricate *ć or palatal sibilant *ś. In a personal communication, Jorma Koivulehto has pointed out that this does not necessarily imply that the satemization had already taken place in the donor language, because Proto-Finno-Ugric (Proto-Uralic) *ś already substitutes the palatalized velar stops *k´ and *g´h of the Indo-European proto-language (PIE *g´ has been replaced with the Proto-Uralic semivowel *j, cf. e.g. *aja- < PIE *ak´- "to drive"): with one uncertain exception (PIE *leg´- / *log´-: Finnish lukea), there are no examples of the Proto-Indo-European palatalized velar stops being substituted with Proto-Uralic/Proto-Finno-Ugric *k. This ob­servation makes us wonder whether the satemization of the Baltic and Aryan branches was triggered by the substratum of the Finno-Ugric majority language in the area of the Fat'yanovo/Balanovo and Abashevo cultures, and spread from them to the other cultures speaking Proto-Baltic and Proto-Aryan languages. (Cf. also Kallio, this volume, pp. 226-227.)

On the other hand, the second affrication of velars before a front vowel has not yet taken place in the Aryan donor language of Saami geavri < *kekrä "circular thing" (actual meanings in Saami: "ring, circular stopper of the ski stick, shaman's circular drum") and Finnish kekri < *kekrä-j "ancient pagan new year feast", which go back to early Proto-Aryan *kekro-, whence through the inter­mediate form *cekro- Proto-Aryan (and Sanskrit) cakrá- "wheel, circle, cycle of years or seasons" (other branches of Indo-European do not have the develop­ment *r < *l from Proto-Indo-European *kwekwlo- "wheel, cycle") (cf. Koivu­lehto, this volume, no. 42). These words have probably come to Saami and Finnish through the Netted Ware culture, the ruling elite of which seems to have come both from the Abashevo culture (assumed to have spoken early "Proto-Indo-Aryan") and from the Pozdnyakovo culture (assumed to have spoken early "Proto-Iranian").

What the Volga-Permic reconstruction *śišta- "beeswax" does suggest is that the RUKI rule was already functioning when the word was borrowed: Proto-Indo-European *s became *š after *i (and after *r, *u and *k) in Proto-Aryan (and in varying measure in Proto-Balto-Slavic, cf. Porzig 1954: 164-165).'

UEW
'šiśtз (šikśtз) "wax" Finno-Permic

Mordvin E šta, kšta, M šta "wax" |

Mari KB šəštə, U M B šište |

Udmurt
S K śuś "wax", S M iuśto, K śuśo "wax, smear with wax",
S śuśtal- "polish, coat or smear with wax",
(Wichm., given to Uot.: MSFOu. 65:312) G śùś "wax" |

Komi
S śiś (śiśk-),
Lu. śiś (śiśt-),
I śiś (śiś-) "candle, light (S I), wax (Lu.)",
P PO ma-siś "candle, light (P), wax candle (PO)" (ma "honey").

In the Permian languages an assimilation *š > ś - in Komi P PO a dissimilation *ś > s - has occurred in anlaut under the influence of the*ś in inlaut.
In Udmurt one must assume an irregular development *i > u.
The basic form *šikśtз was reconstructed only on basis of Mordvin kšta, but all correspondences in the related languages can actually be derived from such a reconstructed form.
It is also possible, that Mordvin k is an unetymological sound generated in inlaut (*šikśta or šikšta).'


cf. Pokorny *sei-, *seikW-, *sei-p- (in my book, it's all *siN-) in
http://tech.dir.groups.yahoo.com/group/cybalist/message/64638



Most people assume the loans went Indo-Iranian -> Uralic, but some think it went the other direction.
http://tech.dir.groups.yahoo.com/group/cybalist/message/53968

Or perhaps, because of the dh/l alternation, they are from the same language which gave us lingua/dingua etc?
http://tech.dir.groups.yahoo.com/group/cybalist/message/10861 etc



At any rate, I think these two export articles is the reason the Finno-Ugric languages survived at all, given all the predatory nastiness of the time and period
http://tech.dir.groups.yahoo.com/group/cybalist/message/66820
It gave them a niche where they were needed. Also the knowledge of these export facts tell us where the "honey" and "wax" words were exchanged between Finno-Permic speakers and Indo-Iranians: with trade.


Torsten