Chapter:  [ Contents | 1. Alphabet | 2. Sandhi | 3. Assimilation | 4. Strengthening | 5. Declension | 6. Feminine | 7. Adjectives | 8. Numerals | 9. Pronouns | 10.1 Verbs | 10.2 Verbs | 10.3 Verbs | 11. Indeclinables | 12. Compounds | 13. Derivation | 14. Syntax | 15. Prosody ]

A Practical Grammar of the Paali Language
Chapter 12

COMPOUNDS

539. Declinable stems are frequently joined to one another to form compounds. In the older language, compounds are simple and rarely consist of more than 2 or 3 stems, but the later the language (i.e. in the commentaries and sub-commentaries) the more involved they become.

540. Compounds may also have an indeclinable as the first member; there are even a few compounds made up entirely of indeclinables.

Remarks. The Case Endings of the first member or members of a compound are generally dropped; only in a few instances are they preserved.

541. There are six kinds of Compound Words:

(i)dvandaCopulative or Aggregative Compounds
(ii)tappurisaDependent Determinate Compounds
(iii)kammadhaarayaDescriptive Determinate Compounds
(iv)diguNumeral Determinate Compounds
(v)abyayibhaavaAdverbial Compounds
(vi)bahubbihiRelative Or Attributive Compounds

Remarks. Native grammarians distribute the above into four classes by making. Nos. iii and iv subdivisions of No. ii, tappurisa; but this classification, through lack of sufficient distinctness, confuses the student unnecessarily. We shall therefore follow the above division (541).


Dvanda (Copulative or Aggregative Compounds)

542. The members of these compounds are co-ordinate syntactically, in their uncompounded state; each member would be connected with the other by means of the conjunction ca, and

543. Dvanda Compounds are of two kinds:

(i) The compound is a plural and takes the gender and declension of its last member.
(ii) The compound takes the form of a neuter singular and, whatever the number of its members, becomes a collective. This is the case generally with the names of: birds, parts of the body, persons of different sexes, countries, trees herbs, the cardinal points, domestic animals, things that form an antithesis, etc.

Remarks. The following rules are given as to the order of the members of dvanda compounds:
(a) words in i and u are placed first;
(b) shorter words are placed before longer ones;
(c) ii and uu (long), are generally shortened in the middle of the compound;
(d) sometimes a feminine noun, in the middle of the compound, takes the masculine form (candimasuriyaa) sometimes, or remains unchanged (jaraa mara.na.m ).

Examples of (i)
aggi ca dhuumo caaggidhuumaafire and smoke
candimaa ca suriyo cacandimasuriyaathe sun and the moon
devaa ca manussaa cadevamanussaagods and men
devaana~n ca manussaana~n cadevamanussaana.mof gods and men
dhammo ca attho cadhammatthaathe spirit and the word
saariputte ca moggallaane casariputtamoggallaanein Sariputta and in Moggallana
sama.naa ca braahma.naa casama.nabraahmanaasamanas and brahmins

Examples of (ii)
Note that the compounds which come under no.(ii) sometimes assume the form of the plural like those of no.(i).
chavima.msalohita.mchavi ca ma.msa~n ca lohita~n cathe skin, flesh and blood
hatthapaada.m or hatthapaadaahatthaa ca paadaa cathe hands and feet
hatthiassa.mhatthino ca assaa caelephants and horses
jaraamara.na.maraa ca marana~n caold age and death
kusalaakusala.m or kusalaakusalaakusala.m akusala~n cagood and evil
mukhanaasika.mmukha~n ca naasikaa cathe mouth and the nose
vajjimalla.m or vajjimallaavajjii ca mallaa cathe Vajjians and the Mallians

544. The compounds which take the plural form are called: itaritara, because the members of the compound are considered separately; those that take the neuter singular form: samaahaara, because the several members are considered collectively, those that take either the plural or the neuter, are called: vikappasamaahaara.

Tappurisa (Dependent Determinate Compounds)

545. In these compounds the first member is a substantive in any case but the Nominative and the Vocative, qualifying, explaining or determining the last member.

Remarks.
(a) The Case-ending of the first member is elided.
(b) In a few cases, the Case-ending is not elided; these compounds are called: alutta tappurisa.
(c) The aa of such words as: raajaa, maataa, pitaa, bhaata, etc, is shortened in the first member.
(d) Generally, a tappurisa follows the gender of the last member.

(i) tappurisa with accusative case. (dutiya tappurisa)
Examples
ara~n~nagatoara~n~na.m gatogone to the forest
atthakaamoattha.m kaamowishing the welfare of
kumbhakaarokumbha.m kaaroa pot-maker, a potter
pattagaahopatta.m gaahoreceiving a bowl
saccavaadisacca.m vaadispeaking the truth
sukhappattosukha.m pattoattained happiness

(ii) tappurisa with instrumentive case.(tatiya tappurisa)
Examples
buddhabhaasitobuddhena bhaasitospoken by the Buddha
jaccandhojaatiyaa andhoblind by (from) birth
paadapopaadena podrinking with the foot (root), a tree
sukaaha.ta.msukehi aaha.ta.mbrought by parrots
uragourenago, going on the breast, a snake.
vi~n~nugarahitovi~n~nuuhi garahitocensured by the wise
 
Remark. In these compounds, the last member designates the object destined for or attributed to that which is expressed by the first member.
Examples
buddhadeyya.mbuddhassa deyya.mworthy to be offered to the Buddha

 
kathinadussa.mkathinassa dussa.mcloth for the kathina robe
(this is a robe sewn on a fixed day, each year as a meritorious act.)
raajaaraha.mra~n~no araha.mworthy of (lit., to) the king
sa"nghabhatta.msa"nghassa bhatta.mrice (prepared) for the clergy
 
(b) Compounds formed by adding kaamo "desirous of" to an infinitive are considered to be tappurisas in the Dative relation. (niiruttadiipanii, saddaniiti).
Examples
gantukaamogantu.m kaamodesirous to go
kathetukaamokathetu.m kaamodesirous to speak
sotukaamosotu.m kaamodesirous to hear
 
(iv) tappurisa with ablative case.(pa~ncamii tappurisa)
Remarks. These express: fear of, separation or going away from, freedom from, etc.
Examples
bandhanamokkhobandhanasmaa mokkhofreedom from bonds or fetters
corabhiitocoraa bhiitoafraid of the thief
lokaggolokato aggogreater than the world
maatujomaatito joborn from a mother
nagaraniggatonagaramhaa niggatogone out from town
paapabhiirukopaapato bhiirukofearing sin
paapajigucchiipaapato jigucchiiloathing evil
rukkhapatitorukkhasmaa patitofallen from the tree
saasanacutosaasanamhaa cutofallen away from religion
 
(v) tappurisa with genitive case. (cha.t.tha tappurisa).

Remarks.
(a) tappurisas in the Genitive relation are by far the most common.
(b) Final ii and uu of the first member are as a rule shortened to i and u respectively.
(c) The word: ratti, night, takes the form ratta.m at the end of a tappurisa.

Examples
bhikkhunisa"nghobhikkuniina.m sa"nghothe assembly of the nuns (from bhikkunii)
dha~n~naraasidha~n~naana.m raasia heap of grains
naditiira.mnadiyaa tira.mthe river-bank. (from nadii)
naruttamonaraana.m uttamothe greatest of men
raajaputtora~n~no puttothe king's son, a prince
 
(vi) tappurisa with locative case. (sattaani tappurisa)
Examples
ara~n~navaasoara~n~ne vaasoliving in the forest
daanajjhaasayodaane ajjhaasayoinclined to alms-giving
dhammaratodhamme ratodelighting in the Law
pabbata.t.thopabbatasmi.m .thostanding on a mountain
thala.t.thothale .thostanding on firm ground
vanacarovane caarowalking in the woods
 
Anomalous tappurisa
(a) Sometimes the first member of a tappurisa is placed last
Examples
raajaha.msoha.msaana.m raajaathe swan-king, but also: ha.msaraajaa

Alutta tappurisa
(b) In these the Case-endings are not dropped:
Examples
antevaasikoante vaasikoa pupil within, a resident pupil
attanopada.mattano pada.mword for one's self, Reflective Voice
kutojokuto josprung whence?
pabha"nkaropabha.m karomaking light, the sun.
parassapada.mparassa pada.mword for another, Active Voice
urasilomourasi (loc.) lomohaving hair on the breast, hairy-breasted
vessantarovessa.m tarocrossing over to the merchants (a king's name)

The student will remark that the case of the first member may be any case but the Nominative and Vocative.

546. (iii) Kammadhaaraya. Descriptive Determinate Compounds

Remarks.
(a) In kammadhaaraya compounds, the adjective: mahanta assumes the form: mahaa, and, if the consonant which follows is reduplicated, the form: maha.
(b) The word: santa, good, being, takes the form; sa (Sansk. sat).
(c) The word: puma, a male, rejects its final a.
(d) When the two members of a kammadhaaraya are feminine, the first one assumes the form of the masculine.
(e) The Prefix na, not, is replaced by a before a consonant and by an before a vowel.
(f) Prefix ku, meaning bad, little, may become ka before a consonant, and kad before a vowel.
(g) In their uncompounded state, the two members of a kammadhaaraya are in the same case.
(i) The kammadharaya compound (which is also called: missakatappurisa) is divided into nine classes:

(1) visesanapubbapada kammadharaya, in which the determining or qualifying word is placed first.
Examples
aparapurisoaparo purisothe other man
ka.nhasappoka.nho sappoa black snake
mahaanadiimahantii nadiia large river
mahaapurisomahanto purisoa great man
mahabbhaya.mmahanta.m bhaya.mgreat fear
niiluppala.mniila.m uppala.ma blue lotus
 
(2) visesanaparapada, or visesanuttarapada-kammadhaaraya; in this, the second member determines the first.
buddhaghosaacariyobuddhaghoso aacariyothe teacher Buddhaghosa
narase.t.thonaro se.t.thothe oldest man
purisuttamopuriso uttamothe greatest man
saariputtatherosaariputto therothe Elder Saariputta

(3) visesanobhayapada-kammadhaaraya, the two members of which are determinate
Remarks. A word, as for instance, so, he, is generally understood between the two members of these compounds.
Examples
andhabadhiroandho (ca so) badhiro(he is) blind (and) deaf
kataakata.mkata.m(ca ta.m)akata.m(what is) done (and) not done
kha~njakhujjokha~njo (ca so) khujjo(he is) lame (and) hump-backed
siitu.nha.msiita.m (ta~n ca) u.nha.mcold and heat

(4)sambhaavanaapubbapada-kammadhaaraya;
in which the first member indicates the origin of the second term, or the relation in which the second term stands to the first. In these compounds such words as: iti namely, thus called; eva.m thus, called; sa"nkhaato, called, named; hutvaa, being are generally understood, in order to bring out the full meaning of the compound.
Examples
aniccasa~n~naaanicca iti sa~n~naathe idea, namely, Impermanence
attadi.t.thiattaa iti di.t.thithe (false) doctrine of Self
dhammabuddhidhammo iti buddhiknowledge (arising from) the Law
hetupaccayohetu (hutvaa) paccayothe term (middle term) being, or considered as, the cause, the term which is the cause or condition.
hinasamatohino hutvaa samatoequal in being low, unworthy

(5) upamaa- or upamaanuttarapada-kammadhaaraya
in these compounds, analogy is expressed between the two terms. The word: viya, like, is understood between the two members.
Examples
buddhaadiccoaadicco viya buddhothe sun-like-Buddha
buddhanaagoBuddha-elephant
munipu"ngavosage-bull
munisiihosiiho viya munilion-like-sage, lion-sage
saddhammara.msira.msi viya saddhammoLight-like-Good Law, the Light of the Good Law
Remarks. The words: aadicca, sun, siiha, lion; pu"ngava, usabha, bull; naga, elephant, are frequently used as in the above examples, to denote: superiority, greatness excellence, eminence, so that buddhaadicco may be translated: the eminent Buddha; munisiiho, the great sage; munipu"ngavo, the eminent sage, etc.

(6) avadhaaranapubbapada-kammadhaaraya
in which the first member specifies a general term. Native grammarians, in resolving these compounds, insert the word eva, just, even (but which in these examples cannot be translated into English), between the two terms of the compounds. In English, these compounds must be translated as if they were in the Genitive relation.
Examples
avijjaamalaaavijjaa eva mala.mthe stain of ignorance
gu.nadhana.mguno eva dhana.mwealth of virtues
pa~n~naapajjotopa~n~naa eva pajjotothe lamp of wisdom
pa~n~naasattha.mpa~n~na eva sattha.mthe sword of wisdom
siiladhana.msiila.m eva dhana.mtreasure of morality or of piety

(7) kunipaatapubbapada kammadhaaraya, the first member of which is: ku, (see f)
Examples
kaapurisokaa + purisoa bad man
kadanna.mkad + anna.mbad food
kadariyokad + ariyobadly noble, not noble, ignoble, miserly, stingy
kalava.na.mka + lava.na.ma little salt
kudaasaaku + daasaabad slaves
kuputtoku + puttoa bad son

(8) nanipaatapubbapada-kammadhaaraya, (see e).
Examples
anariyona + ariyoignoble
anatikkammana + atikkamma (gerd.)not transgressing or trespassing
anatthakaamona + atthakaamonot wishing for the welfare of
aniitina + itifree from calamity, secure
anuumina + uuminot having waves, waveless

(9) paadipubbapada-kammadhaaraya, in which the first member is paa, pa or any other prefix.
Examples
abhidhammoabhi + dhammo(Law, doctrine), transcending Doctrine
atidevoati + devaaSupreme deva or God. (note that devaa becomes: devo)
dukkata.mdu + kata.ma bad, sinful act
paavacana.mpa + vacana.mthe excellent word, Buddha's word
(Native grammarians take paa to be the abbreviation of the word: paka.t.tho = excellent).
pamukhopa + mukho(having the face towards), facing, in front of, chief
sugandhosu + gandhogood smell, fragrance
ubbinayoud + vinayo(Discipline for the monks), wrong Discipline
uddhammoud + dhammowrong or false doctrines
vikappovi + kappo(thought, inclination), option

547. Nouns In Apposition

Nouns in Apposition are considered to be kammadhaaraya compounds:
Examples
a"ngajanapada.mthe Province of Bengal
cittogahapatiCitta, the householder
magadhara.t.tha.mthe Kingdom of Magadhaa
sakkodevaraajaa,Sakka, the Lord of gods
vinayapi.taka.mthe Vinaya Basket(a part of the Buddhist Scriptures)
Remark. Sometimes the last member of a kammadhaaraya, being feminine, assumes the masculine form.
Example
diighaja"nghodiigha + ja"nghaa(feminine) long-legged.

548. (iv) Digu (Numeral Compounds)

There are two kinds of digu:

(i) samaahaara digu, considered as collective takes the form of the neuter sing in.m.
(ii) asamaahaara digu when the digu does not express a whole, but the objects indicated by the last member are considered individually, the compound as a rule taking the form of the plural.

Remarks.
(a) Some words, when last member of a digu, change their final vowel to a, if it be other than a.
(b) The stems only of the numerals are used as first members.

(i) SAMAAHAARA-DlGU
Examples
catusacca.mthe four Truths (collectively)
catusahassa.mfour thousand
dviratta.mdvi + rattitwo nights (remark a)
navasata.mnine hundred
pa~ncagava.mpa~nca + gavo(remark a)
pa~ncasikkhaapada.mthe five Precepts (collectively)
sattaaha.msatta + aha.m(day), seven days, a week
tiloka.mthe three worlds (collectively)
tiratana.mthe three Jewels (collectively)
tiva"ngula.mti + v(inserted, 28) a"ngulithree fingers
 
(ii) ASAMAAHAARA-DIGU
Examples
catudisaathe four quarters
catusataanifour hundreds
dvisatasahassaani(dvi sata sahassaani)two hundred thousand
pa~ncindriyaanipa~nca + indriyaani.the five senses
saka.tasataanisaka.ta + sataanione hundred carts
tibhavaathe three states of existence

549. (v) Abyayibhaava (Adverbial Compounds)

Remarks.
(a) These compounds have for first member an indeclinable (529).
(b) The abyayibhaava generally assumes the form of the accusative singular in.m , and is indeclinable.
(c) If the final vowel of the last member is aa long aa is replaced by a.m ; other long vowels (except aa), are shortened.

(i) Examples
adhikumaariadhi + kumaarithe young girl
adhoga"nga.mga"ngaaya + adhobelow the Ganges
antopaasaada.manto + paasaadassawithin the palace
anughara.mhouse after house, in every house
anuratha.manu + rathebehind the chariot
anuvassa.manu + vassa.myear after year, every year
pa.tisota.msotassa + pa.tiloma.magainst the stream
pativaata.mpati + vaata.m (acc.)against the wind
tiropabbata.mpabbatassa tiroacross the mountain
upaga"nga.mupa + ga"ngaaya.m (loc.)near the Ganges
upaguupa + gunna.m (plural,)close to the cows
upanagara.mupa + nagara.m , (loc.)near the town
uparipabbata.mpabbatassa + upariupon the mountain
upavadhuupa + vadhuunear (his) wife
yaavajiiva.myaava + jiivaa (abl.)as long as life lasts
yathaabala.myathaa + balenaaccording to (one's) power

(ii) Sometimes, however, the case-ending is retained; the cases thus retained being mostly the Ablative and the Locative. But in most cases, the Neuter form is also met with for the same compound. The Ablative termination may be retained when the indeclinable is: pari, apa, aa, bahi, yaava etc.

Examples
aabhavaggaa or aabhavagga.mto the highest state of existence
antaravithiya.m (loc.)in the street
anto aviicimhi (loc.)in hell
anutiirealong the bank
apapabbataa or apapabbata.maway from the mountain
bahigaamaa or bahigaama.m
bahisaa.niya.m (loc.)outside the curtain
pacchaabhattaa, or pacchaabhatta.mafter meal
puraaru.naa or puraaru.na.m
( = aru.namhaa pure)
before daylight
tiropabbataa or tiropabbate (loc.) or tiropabbata.mbeyond, on the other side of, the mountain
yaavajivaa or yaavajiva.mas long as life lasts

550. (vi) Bahubbiihi (Relative or Attributive Compounds)

Remarks.
(a) A bahubbihi compound, when resolved into its component parts, requires the addition of such relative pronouns as: "he, who, that, which," etc., to express its full meaning; a bahubbihi is therefore used relatively, that is, as an adjective, and consequently, the final member assumes the forms of the three genders, according to the gender of the noun which it qualifies. A bahubbihi is equal to a relative clause.
(b) All the Compounds explained above (dvanda, tappurisa, kammadhaaraya, diigu, abyayibhaava), become, if used as adjectives, bahubbihi Compounds.
(c) babubbihi being used as adjectives qualifying nouns, must agree in gender, number and case with the nouns which they qualify.
(d) It follows from (c) that a bahubbihi may be in any case relation but the Vocative.

The following are the different kinds of bahubbihi.

(1) pathamaa-bahubbihiRelative in the Nominative Case
Examples
chinnahattho purisohand-cut man, a man whose hands have been cut off
Here, chinnahattho is the bahubbihi qualifying the noun puriso.
lohitamakkhita.m mukha.mlohitena makkhita.m mukha.mthe mouth besmeared with blood
lohita makkhita.m is the bahubbihi
susajjita.m pura.ma well-decorated city
susajjita.m is the bahubbihi
 
(2) dutiyaa-bahubbihiRelative in the Accusative Case
that is, the bahubbihi gives to the word which it determines or qualifies the sense of the Accusative relation
Examples
aagatasama.no sa"nghaaraamoima.m sa"nghaaraama.m sama.no aagatothis monastery the priest came to, the monastery into which the priest came
aagatasama.no is the bahubbihi
aaruu.lhanaro rukkhoso naro ima.m rukkha.m aaruu.lhothe tree into which the man climbed
aaruu.lhanaro is the bahubbihi
 
(3) tatiya-bahubbiihiRelative in the Instrumentive Case
in which the bahubbihi gives to the word it determines the sense of the Instrumentive relation
Examples
jitindriyo samanoyena jitaani indriyaani so sama.nothe samana by whom the senses have been conquered
jitindriyo is the bahubbihi
vijitamaaro bhagavaaso bhagavaa yena maaro vijitothe Blessed One by whom Mara was vanquished, the Blessed One who vanquished Mara.
vijitamaaro is the bahubibhi
 
(4) catutthii bahubbihiRelative in the Dative Case
in which the bahubbihi gives to the word it determines the sense of the Dative relation
Examples
dinnasu"nko purisoyassa su"nko dinno sohe to whom tax is given
dinnasu"nko is the bahubbihi
upaniitabhojano sama.noso sama.no yassa bhojana.m upaniita.mthe priest to whom food is given
upaniitabhojano is the bahubbihi
 
(5) pa~ncamii-bahubbihiRelative in the Ablative case
in which the compound gives to the word determined the sense of the Ablative relation
Examples
niggatajano gaamoasmaa gaamasmaa janaa niggataathat village from which the people have departed, an abandoned village
niggatajano is the bahubbihi
apagatakaa.laka.m vattha.mida.m vattha.m yasmaa kaa.lakaa apagataathe cloth from which (the) black spots have departed = a cloth free from black spots
apagatakaa.laka.m is the bahubbihi
 
(6) cha.t.thii-bahubbiihi, Relative in the Genitive Case
in which the compound gives to the word it determines the sense of the Genitive relation
Examples
chinnahattho purisoso puriso yassa hattho chinnothe man whose hands are cut off
chinnahattho is the babhubbihi
visuddhasiilo janoso jano yassa siila.m visuddha.mthat person whose conduct is pure, a moral person
visuddhasiilo is the bahubbihi
 
(7) sattama-bahubbiihiRelative in the Locative Case
that is, in which the bahubbihi gives to the determined word the sense of the Locative case
Examples
bahujano gaamoyasmi.m gaame babuu janaa honti,a village in which are many persons, a populous village
bahujano is the bahubbihi
sampannasasso janapadoyasmi.m janapade sassaani sampannaania district in which the crops are abundant, a fertile district
sampannasasso is the bahubbibi
 

(e) The word determined by the bahubbihi Compound is often understood or implied and not expressed.

Examples
chinnahattho (6)he whose hands have been cut off
dinnasu"nko (4)he who receives taxes, a tax collector
jitindriyo (3)he who has subdued his senses
lohitamakkhito (1)besmeared with blood
maasajatoa month old (lit., he who is born since one month)
sattahaparinibbutodead since a week
somanassojoyful (lit., he to whom joy has arisen)
vijitamaaro (3)he who has conquered Mara, the Buddha

(f) In some bahubbihi, the determining word may be placed either first or last without changing the meaning:

Examples
hatthachinno   orchinnahattho
jaatamaaso     ormaasajaato

(g) Feminine nouns ending in ii, uu as well as stems ending in tu ( = taa, see, 163, words declined like satthaa,) generally take the suffix ka, when they are the last member of a bahubbihi; possession is then implied:

Examples
bahukattuko desoa place in which there are many artisans
bahukumaarika.m kula.ma family in which there are many girls
bahunadiko janapadoa district with many rivers
Note that long ii is shortened before ka; the same remark applies to long uu.

(h) When a feminine noun is the last member of a babubbihi, it takes the masculine form if determining a masculine noun, and the first member, if also feminine, drops the sign of the feminine:

Examples
diighaa ja"nghaaa long leg
diighaja"nghaa itthiia long-legged woman
diighaja"ngho purisobut:  a long-legged man

(i) The adjective mahaa, may be used as the first member of a bahubbihi:

Examples
mahaapa~n~noof great wisdom, very wise

(j) Sometimes aa is added,to the words: dhanu, a bow, dhamma, the Law, and a few others, when last members of a bahubbihi:

Examples
gandhivadhanugandhivadhanvaa (27, ii), Arjuna, he who has a strong bow
paccakkhadhammaabut also paccakkhadhammo, to whom the Doctrine is apparent

 

551. The student will have remarked that all the examples given above of bahubbihi, are digu, tappurisa, kammadhaaraya, dvanda and abyayibhaava, used relatively. To make the matter clearer, however a few examples are here given.

dvanda used relatively
Examples
kusalaakusalaani kammaanigood and bad actions
nahaataanulittobathed and anointed

tappurisa used relatively
Examples
buddhabhaasito dhammothe Doctrine spoken by the Buddha= Buddhena bhaasito dhammo
nagaraniggatoone or he who has gone out of town
sotukaamo janoa person desirous to hear, one desirous to hear

kammadhaaraya used relatively
Examples
gu.nadhanorich in virtues
kha~njakhujjo purisoa lame and hump backed man
sugandhofragrant
 
digu used relatively
Examples
dvimuulo rukkhoa two rooted tree
pa~ncasataani saka.taanifive hundred carts
sahassara.msithe thousand rayed = the sun.
 
abyayibhaava used relatively
Examples
niraparaadho bodhisattothe faultless Bodhisatta
saphalasaha phala, fruitful (lit., having fruits)
savaahano maaroMaara with his monture*              (HL: French for horse)

Upapada Compounds

552. When the second member of a dutiyaa tappurisa Compound is akita noun or Primary derivative, (see Chapter XIII, Primary and Secondary Derivation), and the first member a noun in the Accusative relation, the compound is called upapada. Such a compound may therefore be called indifferently: upapada or upapadatappurisa. or simply: tappurisa. (niruttidiipanii)

Examples
atthakaamoattha.m kaamowishing for the welfare of  (kaamo is a kita derivative)
brahmacaariibrahma.m caariione who leads the higher life
dhamma~n~nuudhamma.m ~nuuhe who knows the Law
kumbhakaarokumbha.m + kaaroa pot-maker, a potter  (kaaro is a kita derivative)
pattagaahopatta.m gaahoreceiver of the bowl
rathakaaroratha.m kaarocarriage maker, cartwright

Anomalous Compounds

553. A few compounds are found which are quite anomalous in their formation, that is, they are made up of words not usually compounded together. These compounds must probably be considered as of very early formation, and be reckoned amongst the oldest in the language. We give a few examples:

Examples
a~n~nama~n~na.m( = a~n~na.m + a~n~na.m)one another
ahamahamikaa( = aha.m , I + aha.m + ika suffix)egoism, arrogance, the conceit of superiority lit., connected with I
itihaa( = iti, thus + ha, lengthened to aa)thus indeed, introduction, legend
itihaasa( = iti, thus + ha, indeed + aasa, was)thus indeed it was = itihaa
itihiitihaa( = itiha + itihaa ) =itihaa, itihaasa
itivutta.m( = iti, thus + vutta.m P P.P. of vatti, to say)thus it was said; the name of a book of the Buddhist Scriptures
itivuttaka( = iti + vutta.m + kasuffix) =itivutta
paramparo( = para.m + para)successive
vitathovi + tathaafalse, unreal
yathaatathoyathaa + tathaareal, true, as it really is

Complex Compounds

554. Compounds, as above explained, may themselves become either the first or the last member of another compound, or two compounds may be brought together to form a new one, and this new one again may become a member of another compound, and so on to almost any length, thus forming compounds within compounds. These compounds are mostly used relatively that is, they are bahubbihi. The student ought to bear in mind that, the older the language is, the fewer are these complex compounds, and the later the language, the more numerous do they become; it therefore follows that long compounds are a sign of decay and, to a certain extent, a test as to the relative age of a text.

Examples

vara.narukkhamuule,
at the foot of the vara.na tree,
is a tappurisa compound in the genitive relation,
and is resolved as follows: vara.narukkhassa muule;
vara.narukkhassa is itself a kammadharaya compound = vara.na eva rukkha.
It is therefore a tappurisa compound, the first member of which is a kammadharaya compound.

mara.nabhayatajjito,
terrified by the fear of death,
a bahubbihi qualifying a noun understood,
and is a tappurisa in the instrumentive relation:
mara.nabhayena tajjito;
mara.nabhaya is itself a tappurisa in the ablative: maranaa bhaya.

siihala.t.thakathaaparivattana.m,
the translation of the Singhalese Commentaries,
is first: a tappurisa compound = sihala.t.thakathaaya parivattana.m,
second, another tappurisa: sihalaaya a.t.thakathaa = the Commentaries of Ceylon, the Singhalese Commentaries.

aparimitakaalasa~ncitapu~n~nabalanibbattaaya,
produced by the power accumulated during an immense period of time,
the whole is a bahubbihi feminine in the Instrumentive.
We resolve it as: aparimitakaalasa~ncitapu~n~nabala,
a tappurisa determining nibbattaaya;
aparimitakaalasa~ncitapu~n~na,
a kammadharaya determining bala;
aparimitakaalasa~ncita,
a kammadharaya determining pu~n~na;
aparimitakaala,
a kammadharaya determining sa~ncita;
lastly aparimita is a kammadharaya = a + parimita.

In its uncompounded state, it would run as follows:
aparimite kaale sa~ncitassa pu~n~nassa balena nibbattaaya.

Remark. The student should follow the above method in resolving compounds.

Changes of certain words in compounds.

555. Some words, when compounded, change their final vowel; when last members of a bahubbihi, they, of course, assume the ending of the three genders, according to the gender of the noun they determine. The most common are here given:

go, a cow, bullock, becomes gu, gavo or gava.m :
pa~ncagu, bartered with five cows (pa~ncahi gohi kito);
raajagavo, the king's bullock (ra~n~no go);
daaragava.m , wife and cow (daaro ca go);
dasagava.m, ten cows.
bhuumi, place, state, stage, degree, storey becomes bhuuma:
jaatibhuuma.m , birth place (jaatiyaa bhuumi);
dvibhuuma.m , two stages (dvi bhuumiyo);
dvibhuumo, two storeyed. Ka, is sometimes superadded, as: dvibhuumako = dvibhuumo.

nadii, a river, is changed to nada:
pa~ncanada.m , five rivers;
pa~ncanado, having five rivers.

a"nguli, finger, becomes a"ngula (see, 548, a).
ratti, night, is changed to ratta (see, 548, a);
here are a few more examples:
diigharatta.m for a long time (lit. long nights = diighaa rattiyo; ahoratta.m ,
Oh! the night! (aho ratti);
a.d.dharatto, midnight (rattiyaa a.d.dha.m = the middle of the night).

akkhi, the eye, changes to akkha:
visaalakkho, large eyed (visaalaani akkhiini yassa honti);
viruupakkho, having horrible eyes, name of the Chief of the Nagas (viruupaani akkhiini yassa, to whom (are) horrible eyes);
sahassakkho, the thousand-eyed, a name of Sakka (akkhiini sahassaani yassa);
parokkha.m, invisible, lit., "beyond the eye" (akkhina.m tirobhaago).

sakhaa, (masc.) friend, companion, becomes sakho:
vaayusakho, the breeze's friend, fire (vayuno sakhaa so);
sabbasakho, the friend of all (sabbesa.m sakhaa).

attaa, self, one's self becomes atta:
pahitatto, resolute, whose mind is bent upon, lit, directed towards (pahito pesito attaa yena, by whom the mind is directed upon);
.thitatto, of firm mind (.thito attaa assa, whose mind is firm).

pumaa = male, a man, becomes pu.m, and final.m is assimilated to the following consonant according to the usual rules:
pulli"nga.m , the male sex: manhood, the masculine gender (pu.m + linga.m, characteristic, sign);
pu"nkokilo, a male cuckoo (pu.m + kokilo).

saha, with, is abbreviated to sa, which is placed at the beginning of compounds ka is sometimes superadded:
sapicuka, of cotton, with cotton,
as -sapicuka.m ma.n.dalika.m, a ball of cotton, cotton ball;
sadevako, with the deva worlds;
saha is used in the same sense:
sahodaka, with water, containing water (saha udaka).

santa, good, being, is also abbreviated to sa (see, 546, b):
sappurisa, a good man;
sajjano, well-born, virtuous (sa + jana, a person).
samaana, same, similar, equal; is likewise shortened to sa:
sajaati or sajaatika, of the same species, of the same class (samaanajaati);
sajanapado; of, or belonging to, the same district (samaanajanapado);
sanaamo, of the same name (samaano naamo);
saanaabhi, of the same navel, uterine.

mahanta, becomes mahaa (see 546, a).

jaayaa, wife, takes the forms jaani, ja.m , tuda.m *, jaya.m , before the word pati, lord, husband:
jayaapati, jayampati, jaanipati, jampati, tudampati, husband and wife.

* The niruttidiipanii has the following interesting note on the word tuda.m :
"yathaa ca sakka.taganthesu 'daaro ca pati ca dampatii' ti"
And lower down: "tattha 'tu' saddo padapuura.namatte yujjati".

Verbal Compounds

556. Many nouns and adjectives are compounded with /kar, to do and /bhuu, to be, or with their derivatives very much in the manner of Verbal Prefixes.

557. The noun or adjective stems thus used change final a or final i to ii.

Examples
bahulaabundant
bahuliikarotito increase, to enlarge
bahuliikara.na.mincreasing
bahuliikatoincreased
bhasmaashes
bhasmibhavatito be reduced to ashes
bhasmibhuutoreduced to ashes
da.lhahard, firm
da.lhikarotito make firm
da.lhikara.na.mmaking firm, strengthening

(Original file downloaded from www.tipitaka.net/pali/grammar/. Tabulation follows the pdf file located at www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/paligram.pdf .)