Chapter:  [ Contents | 1. Alphabet | 2. Sandhi | 3. Assimilation | 4. Strengthening | 5. Declension | 6. Feminine | 7. Adjectives | 8. Numerals | 9. Pronouns | 10.1 Verbs | 10.2 Verbs | 10.3 Verbs | 11. Indeclinables | 12. Compounds | 13. Derivation | 14. Syntax | 15. Prosody ]

A Practical Grammar of the Paali Language
Chapter 10   Part 2

Part 2 Aorist, Perfect, Future System & Participles

THE AORIST

405. The Aorist is the only true past tense in Paali. The Personal Endings of the Imperfect and those of the Aorist have become hopelessly mixed up and the native grammarians are at a loss to differentiate between the Imperfect and the Aorist; but the Aorist has generally superseded the Imperfect. There are many anomalies which the student cannot possibly understand without a slight knowledge of Sanskrit grammar; he need not however, be detained by these considerations just now. The usual Endings of the Imperfect have already been given (381); much will be achieved if he, for the present, devotes his attention to the following paragraphs.

406. The Aorist is supposed to be formed from the root but as a matter of fact, it is formed indifferently either from the root or from the base.

407.

 The desinences*(endings) of the Aorist are:
Active.Reflective.
Sing.Plur.Sing.Plur.
1.a.m, .m, i.m, a, aa.imha, imhaa.aimhe
2.i, o, aatthasevha.m
3.aa, i, iiu.m, i.msu, uuaa, atthu.m, atthu.m

(HL: * French word : A grammatical ending; an inflection.)

Remarks.
(a) The student will remark, on comparing the above Endings with those of the Imperfect, that it is difficult to make out the Imperfect from the Aorist (the blending of Imperfect and Aorist is well known to students of Comparative Philology); the only criterion is, that theImperfect is generally formed on the Special Base, and theAorist, on the root. But even this is not an absolute criterion, and the fact remains that these two tenses can scarcely be differentiated.
(b) Of the above Endings, however, the most commonly used and most distinctively Aoristic are:

Distinct Aoristic Endings
Sing.Plur.
1.i.mimha, imhaa.
2.iittha.
3.ii.msu, (isu.m).
(c) The nasal of a.m is often omitted, and a alone remains.
(d) The Aorist of the great majority of verbs is formed with the desinences given in (b).

408. The Aorist may be divided into three types:

(i)Radical Aorist.
(ii)Stem or Base Aorist.
(iii)Sigmatic Aorist.

Remarks.
(a) As its name indicates, the Radical Aorist is formed directly from the root.
(b) The Stem Aorist is formed on the Special Base.
(c) The Sigmatic Aorist is distinguished by an s that comes between the root and the personal endings given in (407, b).

(i)THE RADICAL AORIST

409. This Aorist is not very common. We will give a few examples. Let it be first remarked that the Aorist may also take the augment a before it, as does the imperfect.

410. from /gam, and /gaa and /guu (subsidiary forms of /gam,) to go, we have:

(a) /gam, /gaa and /guu, to go (With augment a)
Sing.Plur.
1.aga.m, agamaa, agami.magumha
2.agaa, agamaaaguttha
3.agaa, agamiagu.m, agami.msu.

(b) /as, to be (With augment a)
Sing.Plur.
1.aasi.maasimha.
2.aasiaasittha.
3.aasiaasu.m, aasi.msu.
Remark. For the doubling of initial .th see 33.

411.

 /.thaa.
Sing.Plur.
1.a.t.tha.ma.t.thamha.
2.a.t.thoa.t.thattha
3.a.t.thaa.t.tha.msu, a.t.thu.m

412. From /kar we find: aka.m (1st singular), no doubt formed on the analogy of: akaa (1st, 2nd and 3rd singular); akaa being itself from the Vedic form: akar, the loss of the r is compensated by the lengthening of the final a.

In the 1st singular we also have: akara.m, akari.m.
In the plural: 2. akattha; 3. akaru.m, akaruu, akari.msu.

413. /huu (a form of /bhuu) to be.

3rd singular: ahuu, ahu, and before a vowel, ahud.
1st plural: ahumhaa; 3rd plural: ahu.m.

414. /da.

1st singular: adaa, which is also 2nd and 3rd singular.
In the plural we find: 3rd adu.m, ada.msu, adaasu.m

415. The augment a is not inseparable from the Aorist, so that we meet with such forms as:
gaa=agaa, etc.

(ii)Stem Aorist

416. As has already been said, this aorist is formed on the stem or base, not on the root. The augment may or may not be retained.

/paa, base: piva, to drink.For the Reflective;
Sing.Plur.Sing.Plur.
1.pivi.mpivimhapivepivimhe
2.pivipivitthapivisepivivha.m
3.pivipivi.msupiva, pivaapivu, pivu.m, pivi.msu, pivisu.m

417. The great bulk of Primitive Verbs (369) form their Aorist according to the above (piva); it is therefore extremely common, both with and without the augment; let it be stated once for all that this augment is of much more frequent occurence in prose than in poetry; in the latter its retention or rejection is regulated by metrical exigencies. We will now give a few more examples:

/bhuj, to eat base: bhu~nja/gam, to go, base gaccha
Sing.Plur.Sing.Plur.
1.bhu~nji.m.bhu~nijimha, bhu~njimhaa.gacchi.m.gacchimha, gacchimhaa.
2.bhu~njibhu~njitthagacchigacchittha
3.bhu~njibhu~njimsugacchi, ga~nchi.gacchi.msu

(iii)Sigmatic Aorist

418. Sigmatic Aorist is formed by inserting s between the radical vowel or the vowel of the base and the personal endings given above (407, b).

419. So that we obtain the following desinences:

Sing.Plur.
1.si.m (= s + i.m).simha (= s + imha).
2.si (= s + i).sittha (= s + ittha).
3.si (= s + i).su.m (= s + u.m).

420. As will be readily understood, this formation of the Aorist is used with roots ending in vowels, and the s is inserted to join the endings to the root or to the base. It will be seen lower down, however, that they are added also to some roots ending in a consonant when the s becomes assimilated to that consonant.

421. The sigmatic desinences are used mostly with the Derivative Verbs, principally the Causative Verbs (See: Derivative Conjugation), which end in the vowel e. The verbs of the 7th Conjugation, which also end in e, form their Aorist in the same way.

Examples (Causative Verbs).

422.

/haa, to abandon, Causative base: haape./tas, to tremble, Causative base: taase.
Sing.Plur.Sing.Plur.
1.haapesi.mhaapesimhataasesi.mtaasesimha
2.haapesihaapesitthataasesitaasesittha
3.haapesihaapesu.mtaasesitaasesu.m

Remarks. In the 3rd plural the form in i.msu is also frequent: haapesi.msu. taasesi.msu.
(Verbs of the 7th conjugation).

423.

/cur, to steal, base: core./kath, to tell, base: kathe.
Sing.Plur.Sing.Plur.
1.coresi.mcoresimhakathesi.mkathesimha
2.coresicoresitthakathesikathesittha
3.coresicoresu.m, coresi.msukathesikathesu.m, kathesi.msu

Remarks.
(a) To the base in aya endings given in (407, b) may be added directly without the Insertion of sigmatic s, so that we have also:

Sing.Plur.Sing.Plur.
1.corayi.mcorayimhakathayi.mkathayimha
2.corayicorayitthakathayikathayittha
3.corayicorayu.m, corayi.msukathayikathayu.m, kathayi.msu

(b) This holds good for the Causative Verbs which have also a base in aya.

424. The Sigmatic Aorist desinences are placed after some roots which do not belong to the 7th conjugation or to the derivative verbs:

(i)After roots ending in a vowel, with or without the augment a.
(ii)After some roots ending in a Consonant, in which case the usual rules of assimilation (85) are strictly applied.

Examples of (i)
/daato giveadaasi.m, adaasi, adaasimha, etc.
/.thato standa.t.thaasi.m, a.t.thaasimha, etc.
/haato abandonahaasi.m, ahaasi,ahaasimha, etc
/suto hearassosi.m, assosi, assosimha, etc.
/yaato goyaasim, yaasi, yaasimha, etc.

Remark. From an illusory/kaa (=/kar, to do), we find: akaasi.m, akaasi, akaasimha, etc.
From/~naa, to know: a~n~naasi.m, a~n~naasi, a~n~naasimha, etc.

Examples of (ii) (HL: nothing listed under (ii))

425. At a first reading, the student had perhaps better leave unnoticed the few references. to Sanskrit Grammar which will be found in the next few paragrahs. Let him merely assume the forms as they are given: the more advanced student ought, of course,to read them with attention.

426. The s (initial) of Sigmatic desinences, as above given (419), assimilates itself to the last consonant of the root according to the usual rules of assimilation:

(a)From /dis= Sanskrit* /d.rii, we find addakki = Sanskrit adrak-·-is.
The following forms are also found: addakkhii, adakkhi, dakkhi.
(b)From /sakto be able = Sankrit /iiak, we have sakkhi, asakkhi; Sanskrit = iiak-·-is.
(c)/kusto revile = Sanskrit /kruii, gives akkocchi, but akkosi, without the sigmatic s, is also met with.
(d)/bha~njto break, gives Aorist bha"nki.

 (HL: * Sanskrit needs special font. This is only an approximate representation.)

Remark. The above examples will, I think, be sufficient to make the student understand the nature of the changes which occur in the formation of the Sigmatic Aorist when the roots end in a consonant; this consonant is generally s (=Sanskrit "i) and sometimes j. In Sanskrit, final "i (=Paali s) is regularly changed to k before the initial s of verbal endings thus giving the group k·a, which in Paali becomes kkha. Again, by another rule of Sanskrit phonetics, final j becomes g, and as no word can end in a mute sonant, this g is changed to its corresponding surd, that is to k. This class of the Sigmatic Aorist, however, is not numerous.

 

SYSTEM OF THE PERFECT

427. As has been seen, the perfect system consists of the Perfect tense and the Perfect Participle. The participle will be treated of in the chapter on Participles.

428. The Perfect is characterised by the reduplication of the root. The rules have already been given (372) and should now be read over carefully.

429. The endings are:

Perfect.
Active.Reflective.
Sing.Plur.Sing.Plur.
1.amhaimhe
2.etthatthovho
3.autthare

Remarks. (a) Roots ending in a consonant insert an before the above endings beginning with a consonant.
(b) The Perfect is of very rare occurrence.

430.

/pac, Perfect base: papac./bhuu, Perfect base: babhuuv.
Active.Active
Sing.Plur.Sing.Plur.
1.papacapapacimhababhuuvababhuuvimha
2.papacepapacitthababhuuvebabhuuvittha
3.papacapapacubabhuuvababhuuvu
ReflectiveReflective
Sing.Plur.Sing.Plur.
1.papacipapacimhe.babhuuvibabhuuvimhe
2.papacitthopapacivho.babhuuvitthobabhuuvivhe
3.papacitthapapacirebabhuuvitthababhuuvire

THE FUTURE SYSTEM

431. This system includes the Future, the Conditional and the Future Participle. The Participle will be considered in a special chapter.

432. The Future System has for special characteristic the sign: ssa inserted between the root and the personal endings.

Remarks.
(a) The Future System is frequently formed on the Present base.
(b) The vowel i is often inserted between the ssa and the root or base; in this case the final vowel of the root or base is dropped.
(c) When the ssa is added directly to a root ending in a consonant, the same changes which occur in the Aorist occur also in the Future System, through the assimilation of the initial s of ssa.

433.

ActiveReflective
Sing.Plur.Sing.Plur.
1.mima.mmhe
2.sithasevhe
3.tintitente, re

Remarks.
(a) It will be seen that in the active the endings are the same as those of the present indicative. (381)
(b) Before mi, ma and mhe the a of ssa is lengthened.

Examples

434.

(i) without connecting vowel i.
(a) /i, to go, special base e (390), future base: essa
ActiveReflective
Sing.Plur.Sing.Plur.
1.essaamiessaamaessa.messaamhe
2.essasiessathaessaseessavhe
3.essatiessantiessateessante
(i)/nii to lead, special base ne (371, 3) future base: nessa.
Sing.Plur.
1.nessaaminessaama
2.nessasinessatha
3.nessatinessanti, etc.
.(b) /.thaa, to stand.
1..thassaami.thassaama
2..thassasi.thassatha
3..thassati.thassanti, etc.

Remarks. In the above, ssa is added directly to the root; for the shortening of radical a see (34) again:

(i)/daa, give.
Sing.Plur.
1.dassaamidassaama
2.dassasidassatha
3.dassatidassanti, etc.
(ii) with connecting vowel i.
(c) /bhuu, to be, special base: bhava, future base: bhavissa.
ActiveReflective
Sing.Plur.Sing.Plur.
1.bhavissaamibhavisssaamabhavissa.mbhavissaamhe
2.bhavissasibhavissathabhavissasebhavissavhe
3.bhavissatibhavissantibhavissatebhavisante
(iii) with assimilation of ssa
(d) /bhuj to eat, gives bhokkha as future base.
   (Sansk. /bhuj=bhok+.sya=bhok.sya) and we have:bhokkhati. bhokkhate, bhokkha.m, etc.
/chid. to cut, gives: checcha
  (Sansk. /chid=chet+.sya=cet.sya) then:checchaami, checchasi, checchati etc.
/dis, to see, gives a future: dakkha;
  (=Sans./d.rc=drak+.sya=drak.sya) from this we finddakkhati, but more frequently dakkhiti.
Similarly from the root /sak to be able, is obtained  sakkhiti.

435. Adouble future is also found formed from bases like bhokkha, dakka, which, as has been just now explained are already future, by adding to them ssa with the connection vowel -i

Examples
/sak, future base: sakkha, sakkhissaami, sakkhissasi sakkhissati, sakkhissaama, etc.

436. From hoti, the contracted form of bhavati, to be, we find the following numerous forms for the future:

Singular
1.hemi, hehaami, hohaami, hessaami, hehissaami, hohissaamiI shall be
2.hesi. hehisi, hohisi, hessasi, hehissasi, hohissasiThou will be
3.heti, hehiti, hohiti, hessati, hehissati, hohissatiHe will be
Plural
1.hema, hehaama, hohaama, hessaama, hehissaama, hohissaamaWe shall be
2.hetha, hehitha, hohitha, hessatha, hehissatha, hohissathaYou will be
3.henti, hehinti, hohinti, hessanti; hehissanti hohissanti.They will be

/kar. to do, gives:
Sing.Plur.
1.kaahaamiI shall dokaahaamawe shall do
2.kaahasi, kaahisithou wilt dokaahathayou will do
3.kaahati, kaahitihe will dokaahanti, kaahintithey will do

THE CONDITIONAL

437. The Conditional takes the augment a before the root.

438. The personal endings are as follows:

ActiveReflective
Sing.Plur.Sing.Plur.
1.ssassamhaassa.mssaamhase
2.sse, ssa, ssasissathassasessavhe
3.ssaa, ssa, ssatissa.msussathassi.msu

Remark. The above endings are generally joined to the root or the base by means of the connecting vowel i.

/pac, to cook:
ActiveReflective
Sing.Plur.Sing.Plur.
1.apacissa.mapacissamhaaapacissa.mapacissaamhase
2.apacisseapacissathaapacissaseapacissavhe
apacissa
apacissi
3.apacissaaapacissa.msuapacissathaapacissi.msu
apacissa
apacissati

Remarks.
(a) The conditional may be translated by "if I could cook," or " If I should cook," etc.
(b) The conditional is not very frequently used.


THE PARTICIPLES

(a)Present Participle     (HL: may often be translated by " when ..., while ..."etc.)

Active

439. All participles are of the nature of verbal adjectives, and must agree with their nouns, in number, gender and case.

440. The terminations of the present participle active are: nta, a.m or .m;

nta and .m are added to the base,
a.m is added to the root.

Examples
RootBasePresent. Part. Active. Base
/bha.nto saybha.nabha.na.m,  bha.nantasaying
/bhuuto bebhavabhava.m,  bhavantabeing
/chidto cutchindachinda.m,  chindantacutting
/karto dokarakara.m,  karontadoing
/paato drinkpivapiva.m,  pivantadrinking
/pacto cookpacapaca.m,  pacantacooking

441. Verbal bases ending in e (1st Conj. 3rd. Division; 7th. Conj. and causal bases. See "Derivative or secondary conjugation") which have also another base in aya take only the termination nta after the base in e, and both nta and .m after the base in aya.

Examples                  (1st and 7th Conjugations)
RootBasePresent. Part. Active. Base
/curto stealcore,  corayacorenta, coraya.m, corayanta
/jito conquerje, jayajenta, jaya.m, jayanta
/kathto tellkathe, kathayakathenta, kathaya.m, kathayanta
/niito leadne, nayanenta, naya.m, nayanta

(Causative.)
RootCaus BasePresent. Part. Active. (base)
/chidto cutchede, chedayachedenta, chedaya.m, chedayanta
chedaape, chedaapayachedaapenta, chedaapaya.m, chedaapayanta
/dharto holddhaare, dhaarayadhaarenta, dhaaraya.m, dhaarayanta
dhaaraape, dhaaraapayadhaaraapenta dhaaraaya.m, dhaaraapayanta
/marto diemaare, maarayamaarenta, maaraya.m, maarayanta
maaraape, maaraapayamaaraapenta, maaraapaya.m, maaraapayanta

442. Bases in .naa, no, u.naa, u.no (4th Conj.) and naa (5th Conj.) generally take the termination nta.

Examples      (4th and 5th Conjugations)
RootBasePresent. Part. Active. Base
/kiito buyki.naaki.nanta
/suto hearsu.naa, su.nosu.nanta, su.nonta

443. The stem or base of this Present Participle is in at, or ant as:

Pres Part
RootStem. NomSing. MascFem  (see 444)Neut  (see 445)
/bha.nbha.nat, bha.nantbha.na.m, bha.nanto
/carcarat, carantcara.m, carantochindatii , chindantiichinda.m, chindanta.m
/pacpacat, pacantpaca.m, pacantopacatii, pacantiipaca.m, pacanta.m

444. The Feminine is formed by adding ii to the stems or bases in at and nta. (see 443)

445. The Neuter is in .m like the masculine. (see 445)

446. These participles are declined like mahaa (226) in the Masculine, Feminine and Neuter.
The Present Participle may often be translated by " when ..., while ..."etc.

Reflective Participle

447. The Reflective Participle is formed by the addition of maana to the base. It is declined like purisa, ka~n~naa, and ruupa.m.

Examples      Reflective Participle.
RootMasc.Fem.Neuter.
/carcaramaanocaramaanaacaramaana.m
/daadadaamaanodadaamaanaadadaamaana.m
/pacpacamaanopacamaanaapacamaana.m
/susu.namaanosu.namaanaasu.namaana.m

448. Another Reflective Participle, much less frequent than the above, is formed by adding aana to the root. It is declined like that in maana.

Examples      Reflective Participle.
RootMasc.Fem.Neuter.
/carcaraanocaraanaacaraana.m
/daadadaaanodadaaanaadadaana.m
/pacpacaanopacaanaapacaana.m

Remarks. As may be seen from the last example, dadaana, this participle may also be formed from the base.

The Future Participle

449. The future participle is either active or reflective.

(a) In the active, it takes the endings of the present participle active, nta, .m (or a.m), and is declined like mahaa.
(b) ln the reflective, the endings are maana and aana, and it is declined like purisa, ka~n~naa and ruupa.m.
(c) All these endings are added to the future base.
 

Examples   (i) Future Participle Active.    (nta, .m or a.m)
RootMasc.Fem.Neuter
/carcarissa.mcarissatiicarissa.m
carissantocarissanticarissantam
/pacpacissa.mpacissatiipacissa.m
pacissantopacissantiipacissanta.m
/susu.nissa.msu.nissatiisu.nissa.m
su.nissantosu.nissantiisu.nissanta.m
Examples (ii) Future Participle Reflective.  ( maana and  aana)
/carcarissamaanocarissamaanaacarissamaana.m
carissaanocarissaanaacarissaana.m
/pacpacissamaanopacissamaa.napacissamaana.m
pacissaanopacissaanaapacissaana.m
/susu.nissamaanosu.nissamaanaasu.nissamaana.m
su.nissaanosu.nissaanaasu.nissaana.m

The Passive Perfect Participle

450. This participle is very widely used. It is formed from the root by affixing to it the suffix ta or the suffix na.
Remarks. The suffix ta is by far the most commonly used in the formation of this participle.

451. ta is affixed in several ways:

(i)If the root ends in a vowel, it is added directly without any change taking place in the root.
(ii)When the root ends in a consonant, ta may be joined to it by means of connecting vowel i.
(iii)When the root ends in a consonant, ta may become assimilated to it according to the usual rules.
Remarks. At this stage the student ought to read carefully the chapter on Asssmilation (51.)

452.

Examples      (i) Roots ending in a vowel.
RootPresentPass. Perf. Part.
/bhiito be afraidbhaayatihe is afraidbhiitaafraid, frightened
/buuto be, becomebhavatihe is, becomesbhuutabeen, become
/cito collectcinaatihe collectscitacollected
/daato givedinnagiven
/dhaato holdhitaheld
/jito conquerjeti, jayatihe conquersjitaconquered
/~naato knowjaanaatihe knows~naataknown
/nahaato bathenahaayatihe bathesnahaatabathed
/niito leadneti, nayatihe leadsniitaled
/paato drinkpitadrunk
/.thaato stand.thitastood, standing
/yaato go, undergoyaatihe goesyaatagone, undergone

Examples      (ii) Roots ending in a consonant and taking vowel i before ta.
RootPresentPass. Perf. Part.
/calto shakecalatihe shakescalitashaken
/gahto takega.nhaatihe takesgahitataken
/gilto swallowgilatihe swallowsgilitaswallowed
/kappto arrangekappetihe arrangeskappitaarranged
/kathto tellkathetihe tellskathitatold
/khaadto eatkhaadatihe eatskhaditaeaten
/likhto writelikhatihe writeslikhitawritten
/ma.n.dto adornma.n.detihe adornsma.n.ditaadorned
/pacto cookpacatihe cookspacitacooked
Remarks.
(a) Participles like pacita, calita, etc, are declined like purisa, ka~n~naa and ruupa.m.
(b) In the Neuter these participles are often used as nouns:
Passive Perfect ParticipleNeuter
/hasto smilehasitasmiledhasita.m,a smile
/gajjto thundergajjittathunderedgajjita.mthe thunder
/jiivto livejiivitalivedjiivita.mlife
(iii) ta assimilated to the root.  (see 453)

453. The suffix ta assimilates, or is assimilated to the last consonant of the root:

RootP. P. P.Rules of Assimilation
/bhujto eatbhuttaeaten(59, a)
/budhto knowbuddhaknown(63)
/.dasto biteda.t.thabitten(92)
/damto tamedantatamed(67)
/duhto milkduddhamilked(100)
/isto wishi.t.thawished(59, ii-iii)
/jhasto hurtjhattahurt(94)
/kamto proceedkantaproceeded, gone(67)
/kasto ploughka.t.thaploughed(92)
/labhto obtainladdhaobtained(63, Remark.)
/lihto lickli.lhalicked(100,101,102)
/majjto polishma.t.tha(also ma.t.ta)polished(59, i)
/mucto freemuttafreed(59, b)
/muhto errmu.lha,also muddhaerred(100,101,102)
/patto fallpattafallen(62)
/rudhto obstructruddhaobstructed(63)
/ruhto ascendruu.lhaascended(100,101,102)
/tapto burntattaburned(64, i)

454. (a) Roots in r generally drop the r before ta.

Examples
RootP. P. P.Rules of Assimilation
/karto makekatamade(81)
/marto diematadead(81)
/sarto remembersataremembered(81)

455. (b) Roots in n generally drop final n before ta.

Examples
RootP. P. P.
/hanto killhatakilled
/khan, or kha.nto digkhata (also: khaata, from a collateral form khaa=khan)dug
/manto thinkmatathought

456. (c) sometimes final .m is also dropped.

Examples
RootP. P. P.
/gamto gogatagone
/ramto sportrataamused, delighted

457. (d) In a few cases, final r lingualizes the following t, as:

Examples
RootP. P. P.
/harto seizeha.taseized, carried

458. Pass. Perf. Part. which take na.

The suffix na is much less common than ta, and like it:

(i)lt may be joined to the root by means of connecting vowel i, or
(ii)it may be joined directly to roots ending in a vowel;
(iii)when added directly to roots ending in a consonant, that consonant is assimilated to n of na, and sometimes the n of na is assimilated to the final consonant.

Remarks. na is added generally to roots in d and r.

459. Examples of (i)

RootP. P. P.Rules of Assimilation
/sadto settlesinnasettled(69, ii, iii)

Remarks. The form sinna is found only for the verb nisiidati, to sit down= /sad+ni (prefix);
when /sad is preceded by other prefixes, the Passive Perfect Participle assumes the form; sanna, as:
sad + ava = Passive Perfect Participle: ava sanna, sunk, settled.
sad + pa = Passive Perfect Participle: pasanna, settled.
(Note that the base of root sad is siida.)

RootP. P. P.Rules of Assimilation
/chadto coverchannacovered(69, ii, iii)
/chidto cutchinnacut(69, ii, iii)
/daato givedinnagiven(69 ii, iii)

In this last example, aa of the root has been dropped, and the n doubled to compensate for its loss; the form datta given. ( = daa + ta, with the t doubled to make for the shortening of aa), is found sometimes.

Remarks. It will be seen from the above four examples that the insertion of i is to a great extent optional.

RootP. P. P.Rules of Assimilation
/carto wanderci.n.nawandered(83)
/kirto scatterki.n.nascattered(83)
/tarto crossti.n.nacrossed(83)

Remarks. In these examples, i is inserted and then reduplicated and lingualized according to rule (83).

460. Examples of (iii)

RootP. P. P.Rules of Assimilation
/bhajto breakbhaggabroken(57)
/vijto be agitatedviggaagitated(57)
In these two examples, final j of the root, having become, against the usual phonetic laws g, the n of suffix na, is assimilated to it by rule 57 (426, Remark).
/lagto adherelaggaadhered(57)

461. Examples of (ii)

RootP. P. P.
/gilaa (glaa 113)to be illgilaanaill
/haato be weak, lowhiinawasted, inferior
/khiito decay, ceasekhiinadecayed. (final i is lengthened)
/liito cling toliinaclung to
/luuto cutluunareaped, cut

In the last example, radical aa is replaced by ii.

462. A few Passive Perfect Participles are irregular, such as: jhaama, burnt, from /jhaa, to burn; phulla, expanded, split, from /phal, to expand, split; but these are properly speaking derivative adjectives used as participles.

463. Sometimes two forms of the Passive Perfect Participles for the same root are met with:

RootP. P. P.
/daato givedinna and datta
/gamto gogata and gamita
/kasto ploughka.t.tha and kasita
/lagto adherelagga and lagita

464. The participles in ta and na are declined like purisa, ka~n~naa and ruupa.m.

Perfect Participle Active

465. The Perfect Participle Active, is formed by adding vaa to the Passive Perfect Participle.

Examples
RootP. P. PP.P.A.
/bhujto eatbhuttaeatenbhuttavaahaving eaten
/karto dokatamadekatavaahaving made
/pacto cookpacitacookedpacitavaahaving cooked

Remarks. (a) These Perfect Participles Active are declined like gu.navaa.
Examples pacitavaa, pacitavatii or pacitavantii, pacitava.m or pacitavanta.m.
(b) The P. P. Active is also formed with suffix vii (231), in this case the a before vii is lengthened to aa. They are declined like medhaavi, (235) (that is, like da.n.dii nadii and vaari as: pacitaavii having cooked; bhuttaavii, having eaten.

Future Passive Participle   

466. This participle, also called participle of necessity, potential participle and gerundive, is formed by adding to the root the suffixes: tabba, ya, aniiya and iiya.

Remarks.
(a) Roots ending in u, uu, generally form the Future P. P. from the special base.
(b) This participle is passive in sense, expresses suitability, fitness, propriety and may be translated by " fit to be...",." must be...","ought to be...", " to be..." that which is expressed by the root.
(c) These participles, like those already treated of, are adjectives and are treated as such; they are declined like purisa, ka~n~naa and ruupa.m.

Tabba

467. This suffix is the most common. It is added:

(i)Directly to roots ending in a vowel.
(ii)To roots ending in a consonant, it may be joined by means of connecting vowel i.
(iii)When added directly without connecting vowel i to roots ending in a consonant, initial t of tabba is assimilated to or assimilates the last consonant of the root in exactly the same manner as in the formation of the Passive Perfect Participle.

Examples of (i)
RootFuture P.P
/daato givedaatabbafit to bethat ought to bethat must be, given
/haato abandonhaatabbafit to bethat ought to bethat must be, abandoned
/pato drinkpaatabbafit to bethat ought to be drunk

Remarks.

(a) Roots ending in i, ii, change i, ii, to e before tabba:
RootFuture P.P
/ito goetabbafit to bethat must be, gone to
/jito conquerjetabbafit to bethat must be, conquered
/niito leadnetabbafit to bethat must be, led
(ii) Roots in u, uu form the Future P. P. on the Special Base:
RootFuture P.P.
/bhuuto bebhavitabbafit to bethat ought tothat must be
/kuto singkavitabbafit to bethat ought to bethat must be, sung

In the case of root su, to hear, we find the u merely strengthened: sotabba, fit, etc., to be heard.

Examples of (ii)
RootFuture P.P.
/khanto digkhanitabbafit to be, that ought to be, that must be dug
/pacto cookpacitabbafit to be, that ought to be, that must be cooked
/pucchto askpucchitabbafit to be, that ought to be, that must be asked

Examples of (iii)
RootFuture P.P.
/gamto gogantabbafit to be gone to(67), etc.
/karto dokattabba(80); kaatabba (82)fit to be done, etc
/labhto receiveladdhabbafit to be received (63, Remark), etc

YA

468. The initial y becomes assimilated to the last consonant of the root according to the usual rules of assimilation (79) Sometimes the radical vowel is strengthened.

Examples
RootFuture P.P.Rules of Assimilation
/gamto gogammafit, proper, etc, to be gone to

(71, i)

/bhuuto bebhabbathat ought to be proper, possible

(77)

/khaadto eat chewkhajjathat can be chewed

(71,vi)

/sakto be ablesakkaable to be done

(71)

/vajto avoidvajjathat ought to be avoided

(71, 74)

In this last example, the radical vowel uu has been strengthened before ya:
bhuu + ya = bhav + ya = bhavya = bhabba.

RootFuture P.P.Rules of Assimilation
/bhidto breakbhijjato be broken

(71vi.)

/bhujto eatbhojjato be eaten. eatables. food

(71)

/gahto takegayhathat can be taken. seized

(78 iii)

/hasto laughhassafit to be laughed at

(76)

/labhto obtainlabbhafit. worthy to be obtained

(71)

/lihto lick, sipleyyato be licked. sipped

(98 Remark.)

(a) ya is, in a few cases, cases, joined to the root by means of vowel i. For instance:

/bharto support:
  bhaariyathat ought to be maintained with lengthening of radical a.
/karto do make we have:
  kaariyathat ought to be or can be done with lengthening of radical a.
  kayyathat ought etc. to be done with assimilation of final r to ya.
  kayiirathat ought etc with metathesis (iii).

(b) After roots ending in aa long initial y of ya is doubled and final a of the root is changed to e.

RootFuture P.P.
/daato givedeyyato be given, that ought to or can be given
/haato abandonheyyato be abandoned, that ought to be abandoned
/paato drinkpeyyathat can, may, or ought to be drunk

(c) ya is likewise doubled after roots in i, ii and the i or ii is changed to e.

/niito leadneyyato be led, that ought to be led
/jito conquerjeyyato be conquered that can be conquered

Aniiya

469. The suffix aniiya is added to the root or to the base.

RootFuture P.P.
/karto do, makekara.niiyathat ought to be made or done
/pacto cookpacaniiyafit to be cooked
/pujto honourpujaniiyaworthy to be honoured
(Observe that the n is lingualised through the influence of radical r, 83)
/bhuuto be(base: bhava) bhavaniiyathat ought to be

THE GERUND

470. The gerund is formed by means of suffixes: tvaa, tvaana, tuuna, ya, and tya. It is indeclinable and partakes of the nature of a participle.

Remarks.
(a) The suffix tvaa is most commonly met with; tvaana, tuuna, and sometimes tuuna.m are used as substitutes of tvaa and are met with in poetry much more than in prose.
(b) ya is not so restricted in use as tvaana and tuuna.
(c) tya which becomes regularly cca (74, iv), is merely a form of ya, initial t being inserted between the gerundian, suffix ya and a root ending in a vowel.
(e.g. pa + /i, to depart + ya = pa + i + t + ya = petya = pecca having departed, 110).
In Paali ya is added indiscriminately to simple roots or to roots compounded with prefixes; but, as in Sansk. (in which it is never used after simple roots), it is much more common after compound verbs.

Tvaa, Tvaana, Tuuna

471. The suffix tvaa may be:

(i)Joined to the root by means of connecting vowel i.
(ii)The initial t of the suffix is, in a few cases assimilated to the last consonant of the root.
(iii)The vowel of the root is gu.nated
(iv)Sometimes the last consonant of the root is dropped before suffixes tvaa, tvaana and tuuna
(v)The final long vowel of a root is shortened before these suffixes.
(vi)The suffixes are added to the special base as well as to the root.

Examples
RootGerund.
/aap+ pa = paapto getpatvaahaving got. (iv; v).
/bhiito fearbhitvaahaving feared. fearing (v).
/bhujto eatbhutvaahaving eaten (iv).
/chidto cutchetvaahaving cut (iii, iv)
/daato givedatvaahaving given (v).
/labhto obtainladdhaaobtained (ii) (63, Remark).
labhitvaahaving obtained. (i).
/jito conquerjitvaa.jetvaahaving conquered (iii).
/karto makekatvaahaving made (iv).
/khaadto eatkhaaditvaahaving eaten (i).
/niito leadnetvaahaving led (iii).
/pacto cookpacitvaahaving cooked (i).
/ttthaato stand, remain.thitvaahaving stood.remained (i).

Remarks.

From rootwe have also
/daadaditvaa, daditvaana
/kamto step, to proceednikkamitvaa, nikkamituuna
/karkaatuuna, kattuuna
/suto hearsutvaa, sotuuna.m, su.nitvaa, su.nitvaana
/.thaathatvaa

472.

(i)ya is used mostly with roots compounded with prefixes.
(ii)In a few cases it is used with simple roots.
(iii)tya is regularly changed cca.
(iv)ya is added directly to roots ending in long aa.
(v)ya may be added to the Special Base.
(vi)ya is assimilated to the last consonant of the root.
(vii)ya may be joined to the root or to the base by means of i.

Examples
/bhujto eatbhu~njiyahaving eate(v. ii. vii)
/cintto thinkcintiyahaving thought(ii.vii)
/daato giveaadaayahaving given(i. iv)
/gahto takegayhahaving taken(ii. iii)
/gamto gogammahaving gone(vi. 71. ii)
/haato abandonvihaayahaving abandoned(i. iv)
/hanto strikeaahaccahaving struck=aa+han+tya. final n being dropped before initial t (n. dropped before t).
/hanto strikeupahaccahaving vexed=upa+han+tya (See last remark).
/hanto strikeuhaccahaving destroyed=u+han+tya (See last remark).
/harto take awayaahaccahaving reached, attained=aa+har+tya (81).
/ito goabbisameccahaving comprehendedabhi+sam+aa+i+tya (21. i)
/ito gopa.ticcafollowing upon, from=pa.ti+i+tya
/ito gopeccahaving gone, departed=pa+i+tya (21. i; 74. iv)
/ikkhto seesamekkhiyahaving reflected(i.vii)
/jaato knowvijaaniyahaving known, discerned(i.v.vii)
/kamto treadakkammahaving trodden(vi. 71. 33. 35)
/~naato knowabhi~n~naaayahaving known.(i. iv)
/sadto sit downnisajjahaving sat(vi. 71. 74)
/sadto sit downnisiidiyahaving sat(i. vii. v). (See 459. Remark).
/sicto sprinklenisi~nciyahaving besprinkled(i vii)
/visto enterpavissahaving entered(vi. i)

This last should not be confounded with gerund, from /han, given above.

Remarks. (a) Sometimes the gerund having been formed by means of ya, the ya is dropped, the root alone remaining, as in;

abhi~n~naahaving known= abhi~n~naaya
pa.tisa"nkhaahaving pondered= pa.tisa"nkhaaya
anupaadaanot having clung, not clinging= anupaadaaya(an + upa + aa + /daa + ya)

(b) Some roots seem to take a compound gerundial suffix, made up of ya and tvaa, and joined to the root by means of i, as:

aaruyhitvaa(/ruh)having ascended
ogayhitvaa(/gaah=gah)having dived = ogayha = ogaahitvaa

(c) There are some anomalous forms:

from
disvaa/disto see = having seen
da.t.thu = disvaa
anuvicca/vidto know = having known,final d being dropped before tya
pappuyya/aap+ pa = paapto obtain = paapayitvaa
vineyya/niihaving removed
niccheyya/nihaving ascertained

In these last three examples the y has undergone reduplication.

atisitvaafrom /sar=Sanskrit s.r(?)having approached, having excelled

(d) The student will have remarked that several forms are met with from the same root, as:

/daadatvaadaditvaadaditvaanadaaya
/gahgayhaganhiyaganhitvaa
/karkariyakaritvaakatvaakatvaanakaatuunakattuuna

THE INFINITIVE

473. The Infinitive is generally formed by means of suffix tu.m.

474. The suffixes tave, tuye and taaye are also met with, but seldom.

475. Tu.m, like the suffix of the P.P.P. (450) may be:

(i)joined to the root or to the base by vowel i.
(ii)to the roots in aa, it is added directly.
(iii)roots ending in i, ii, change final i, ii to e; and roots in u, uu, change u, uu to o.
(iv)Initial t of tu.m is assimilated to the last consonant of the root; the last consonant may also be assimilated to t.
(v)tu.m is also added to the Special Base.

Examples
/aapto obtain+ pa = pattu.mto obtain. (iv. 64. i)
/bhujto eatbhottu.mto eat. (iii. iv. 59a)
/budhto knowbodhitu.mto know. (i. iii).
/budhto knowbujjhitu.mto know. (i. v) .
/chidto cutchinditu.mto cut. (v).
/chidto cutchettu.mto cut. (iii. iv; 62. vi)
/daato givedaatu.m(ii)
/gamto gogantu.mto go. (iv; 67).
/ito goetu.mto go. (iii).
/jaato knowjaanitu.mto know. (v).
/jito conquerjetu.m(iii)
/khaadto eatkhaaditu.mto eat. (i)
/labhto obtainladdhu.mto obtain. (iv. 63. remark)
/niito leadnetu.m(iii)
/pacto cookpacitu.mto cook. (i)
/siito lie downsetu.mto lie down.(iii).
/siito lie downsayitu.m(v).
/suto hearsotu.m(iii)
/suto hearsu.nitu.mto hear. (v)
/.thaato stand.thaatu.m(ii)
/tharto spreadtharitu.mto spread. (i)
/yaato goyaatu.m(ii)

Tave, Tuye, Taaye

476. These suffixes are Vedic and but seldom used in Paali; tave, however, is more frequently met with than the other two.

/dhaato holdnidhetaveto hide, bury= ni + base dhe (391) + tave
/disto seedakkhitaayeto see404
/ganto countganetuyeto countAdded to the base gane
/haato abandonvippahaataveto abandon= vi + pa + haa + tave
/marto diemarituyeto dieJoined by vowel i
/namto bendunnametaveto ascend, rise= ud + nam + e + tave
/niito leadnitaveto lead

477. The student will have remarked that several forms for the same root are often met with.

Remarks.
(a) The Infinitive is used both passsively and actively.
(b) The Dative of nouns in aaya is often used with an infinitive sense.
(c) The Infinitive expresses purpose and may be translated by: "for the purpose of, in order to."


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