Chapter: [ Contents | 1. Alphabet | 2. Sandhi | 3. Assimilation | 4. Strengthening | 5. Declension | 6. Feminine | 7. Adjectives | 8. Numerals | 9. Pronouns | 10.1 Verbs | 10.2 Verbs | 10.3 Verbs | 11. Indeclinables | 12. Compounds | 13. Derivation | 14. Syntax | 15. Prosody ]
A Practical Grammar of the Paali Language
Chapter 10 Part 2
THE AORIST
405. The Aorist is the only true past tense in Paali. The Personal Endings of the Imperfect and those of the Aorist have become hopelessly mixed up and the native grammarians are at a loss to differentiate between the Imperfect and the Aorist; but the Aorist has generally superseded the Imperfect. There are many anomalies which the student cannot possibly understand without a slight knowledge of Sanskrit grammar; he need not however, be detained by these considerations just now. The usual Endings of the Imperfect have already been given (381); much will be achieved if he, for the present, devotes his attention to the following paragraphs.
406. The Aorist is supposed to be formed from the root but as a matter of fact, it is formed indifferently either from the root or from the base.
407.
The desinences*(endings) of the Aorist are: | ||||
Active. | Reflective. | |||
Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
1. | a.m, .m, i.m, a, aa. | imha, imhaa. | a | imhe |
2. | i, o, aa | ttha | se | vha.m |
3. | aa, i, ii | u.m, i.msu, uu | aa, a | tthu.m, atthu.m |
(HL: * French word : A grammatical ending; an inflection.)
Remarks.
(a) The student will remark, on comparing the above Endings with those of the Imperfect, that it is difficult to make out the
Imperfect from the Aorist (the blending of Imperfect and Aorist is well known to students of Comparative Philology); the only
criterion is, that theImperfect is generally formed on the Special Base, and theAorist, on the root. But even this is not
an absolute criterion, and the fact remains that these two tenses can scarcely be differentiated.
(b) Of the above Endings, however, the most commonly used and most distinctively Aoristic are:
Distinct Aoristic Endings | ||
Sing. | Plur. | |
1. | i.m | imha, imhaa. |
2. | i | ittha. |
3. | i | i.msu, (isu.m). |
408. The Aorist may be divided into three types:
(i) | Radical Aorist. |
(ii) | Stem or Base Aorist. |
(iii) | Sigmatic Aorist. |
(i)THE RADICAL AORIST
409. This Aorist is not very common. We will give a few examples. Let it be first remarked that the Aorist may also take the augment a before it, as does the imperfect.
410. from /gam, and /gaa and /guu (subsidiary forms of /gam,) to go, we have:
(a) /gam, /gaa and /guu, to go (With augment a) | ||
Sing. | Plur. | |
1. | aga.m, agamaa, agami.m | agumha |
2. | agaa, agamaa | aguttha |
3. | agaa, agami | agu.m, agami.msu. |
(b) /as, to be (With augment a) | ||
Sing. | Plur. | |
1. | aasi.m | aasimha. |
2. | aasi | aasittha. |
3. | aasi | aasu.m, aasi.msu. |
411.
/.thaa. | ||
Sing. | Plur. | |
1. | a.t.tha.m | a.t.thamha. |
2. | a.t.tho | a.t.thattha |
3. | a.t.tha | a.t.tha.msu, a.t.thu.m |
412. From /kar we find: aka.m (1st singular), no doubt formed on the analogy of: akaa (1st, 2nd and 3rd singular); akaa being itself from the Vedic form: akar, the loss of the r is compensated by the lengthening of the final a.
In the 1st singular we also have: akara.m, akari.m.
In the plural: 2. akattha; 3. akaru.m, akaruu, akari.msu.
413. /huu (a form of /bhuu) to be.
3rd singular: ahuu, ahu, and before a vowel, ahud.
1st plural: ahumhaa; 3rd plural: ahu.m.
414. /da.
1st singular: adaa, which is also 2nd and 3rd singular.
In the plural we find: 3rd adu.m, ada.msu, adaasu.m
415. The augment a is not inseparable from the Aorist, so that we meet with such forms as:
gaa=agaa, etc.
(ii)Stem Aorist
416. As has already been said, this aorist is formed on the stem or base, not on the root. The augment may or may not be retained.
/paa, base: piva, to drink. | For the Reflective; | |||
Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
1. | pivi.m | pivimha | pive | pivimhe |
2. | pivi | pivittha | pivise | pivivha.m |
3. | pivi | pivi.msu | piva, pivaa | pivu, pivu.m, pivi.msu, pivisu.m |
417. The great bulk of Primitive Verbs (369) form their Aorist according to the above (piva); it is therefore extremely common, both with and without the augment; let it be stated once for all that this augment is of much more frequent occurence in prose than in poetry; in the latter its retention or rejection is regulated by metrical exigencies. We will now give a few more examples:
/bhuj, to eat base: bhu~nja | /gam, to go, base gaccha | |||
Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
1. | bhu~nji.m. | bhu~nijimha, bhu~njimhaa. | gacchi.m. | gacchimha, gacchimhaa. |
2. | bhu~nji | bhu~njittha | gacchi | gacchittha |
3. | bhu~nji | bhu~njimsu | gacchi, ga~nchi. | gacchi.msu |
(iii)Sigmatic Aorist
418. Sigmatic Aorist is formed by inserting s between the radical vowel or the vowel of the base and the personal endings given above (407, b).
419. So that we obtain the following desinences:
Sing. | Plur. | |
1. | si.m (= s + i.m). | simha (= s + imha). |
2. | si (= s + i). | sittha (= s + ittha). |
3. | si (= s + i). | su.m (= s + u.m). |
420. As will be readily understood, this formation of the Aorist is used with roots ending in vowels, and the s is inserted to join the endings to the root or to the base. It will be seen lower down, however, that they are added also to some roots ending in a consonant when the s becomes assimilated to that consonant.
421. The sigmatic desinences are used mostly with the Derivative Verbs, principally the Causative Verbs (See: Derivative Conjugation), which end in the vowel e. The verbs of the 7th Conjugation, which also end in e, form their Aorist in the same way.
Examples (Causative Verbs).
422.
/haa, to abandon, Causative base: haape. | /tas, to tremble, Causative base: taase. | |||
Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
1. | haapesi.m | haapesimha | taasesi.m | taasesimha |
2. | haapesi | haapesittha | taasesi | taasesittha |
3. | haapesi | haapesu.m | taasesi | taasesu.m |
Remarks. In the 3rd plural the form in i.msu is also frequent: haapesi.msu. taasesi.msu.
(Verbs of the 7th conjugation).
423.
/cur, to steal, base: core. | /kath, to tell, base: kathe. | |||
Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
1. | coresi.m | coresimha | kathesi.m | kathesimha |
2. | coresi | coresittha | kathesi | kathesittha |
3. | coresi | coresu.m, coresi.msu | kathesi | kathesu.m, kathesi.msu |
Remarks.
(a) To the base in aya endings given in (407, b) may be added directly without the Insertion of sigmatic s, so that we have also:
Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
1. | corayi.m | corayimha | kathayi.m | kathayimha |
2. | corayi | corayittha | kathayi | kathayittha |
3. | corayi | corayu.m, corayi.msu | kathayi | kathayu.m, kathayi.msu |
(b) This holds good for the Causative Verbs which have also a base in aya.
424. The Sigmatic Aorist desinences are placed after some roots which do not belong to the 7th conjugation or to the derivative verbs:
(i) | After roots ending in a vowel, with or without the augment a. |
(ii) | After some roots ending in a Consonant, in which case the usual rules of assimilation (85) are strictly applied. |
Examples of (i) | ||
/daa | to give | adaasi.m, adaasi, adaasimha, etc. |
/.tha | to stand | a.t.thaasi.m, a.t.thaasimha, etc. |
/haa | to abandon | ahaasi.m, ahaasi,ahaasimha, etc |
/su | to hear | assosi.m, assosi, assosimha, etc. |
/yaa | to go | yaasim, yaasi, yaasimha, etc. |
Remark. From an illusory/kaa (=/kar, to do), we find: akaasi.m, akaasi, akaasimha, etc.
From/~naa, to know: a~n~naasi.m, a~n~naasi, a~n~naasimha, etc.
Examples of (ii) (HL: nothing listed under (ii))
425. At a first reading, the student had perhaps better leave unnoticed the few references. to Sanskrit Grammar which will be found in the next few paragrahs. Let him merely assume the forms as they are given: the more advanced student ought, of course,to read them with attention.
426. The s (initial) of Sigmatic desinences, as above given (419), assimilates itself to the last consonant of the root according to the usual rules of assimilation:
(a) | From /dis | = Sanskrit* /d.rii, we find addakki = Sanskrit adrak-·-is. |
The following forms are also found: addakkhii, adakkhi, dakkhi. | ||
(b) | From /sak | to be able = Sankrit /iiak, we have sakkhi, asakkhi; Sanskrit = iiak-·-is. |
(c) | /kus | to revile = Sanskrit /kruii, gives akkocchi, but akkosi, without the sigmatic s, is also met with. |
(d) | /bha~nj | to break, gives Aorist bha"nki. |
(HL: * Sanskrit needs special font. This is only an approximate representation.)
Remark. The above examples will, I think, be sufficient to make the student understand the nature of the changes which occur in the formation of the Sigmatic Aorist when the roots end in a consonant; this consonant is generally s (=Sanskrit "i) and sometimes j. In Sanskrit, final "i (=Paali s) is regularly changed to k before the initial s of verbal endings thus giving the group k·a, which in Paali becomes kkha. Again, by another rule of Sanskrit phonetics, final j becomes g, and as no word can end in a mute sonant, this g is changed to its corresponding surd, that is to k. This class of the Sigmatic Aorist, however, is not numerous.
SYSTEM OF THE PERFECT
427. As has been seen, the perfect system consists of the Perfect tense and the Perfect Participle. The participle will be treated of in the chapter on Participles.
428. The Perfect is characterised by the reduplication of the root. The rules have already been given (372) and should now be read over carefully.
429. The endings are:
Perfect. | ||||
Active. | Reflective. | |||
Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
1. | a | mha | i | mhe |
2. | e | ttha | ttho | vho |
3. | a | u | ttha | re |
Remarks.
(a) Roots ending in a consonant insert an before the above endings beginning with a consonant.
(b) The Perfect is of very rare occurrence.
430.
/pac, Perfect base: papac. | /bhuu, Perfect base: babhuuv. | |||
Active. | Active | |||
Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
1. | papaca | papacimha | babhuuva | babhuuvimha |
2. | papace | papacittha | babhuuve | babhuuvittha |
3. | papaca | papacu | babhuuva | babhuuvu |
Reflective | Reflective | |||
Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
1. | papaci | papacimhe. | babhuuvi | babhuuvimhe |
2. | papacittho | papacivho. | babhuuvittho | babhuuvivhe |
3. | papacittha | papacire | babhuuvittha | babhuuvire |
THE FUTURE SYSTEM
431. This system includes the Future, the Conditional and the Future Participle. The Participle will be considered in a special chapter.
432. The Future System has for special characteristic the sign: ssa inserted between the root and the personal endings.
Remarks.
(a) The Future System is frequently formed on the Present base.
(b) The vowel i is often inserted between the ssa and the root or base; in this case the final vowel of the root or base is dropped.
(c) When the ssa is added directly to a root ending in a consonant, the same changes which occur in the Aorist occur also in the Future System, through the assimilation of the initial s of ssa.
433.
Active | Reflective | |||
Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
1. | mi | ma | .m | mhe |
2. | si | tha | se | vhe |
3. | ti | nti | te | nte, re |
Remarks.
(a) It will be seen that in the active the endings are the same as those of the present indicative. (381)
(b) Before mi, ma and mhe the a of ssa is lengthened.
Examples
434.
(i) without connecting vowel i. | ||||
(a) /i, to go, special base e (390), future base: essa | ||||
Active | Reflective | |||
Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
1. | essaami | essaama | essa.m | essaamhe |
2. | essasi | essatha | essase | essavhe |
3. | essati | essanti | essate | essante |
(i) | /nii to lead, special base ne (371, 3) future base: nessa. | |
Sing. | Plur. | |
1. | nessaami | nessaama |
2. | nessasi | nessatha |
3. | nessati | nessanti, etc. |
.(b) /.thaa, to stand. | ||
1. | .thassaami | .thassaama |
2. | .thassasi | .thassatha |
3. | .thassati | .thassanti, etc. |
Remarks. In the above, ssa is added directly to the root; for the shortening of radical a see (34) again:
(i) | /daa, give. | |
Sing. | Plur. | |
1. | dassaami | dassaama |
2. | dassasi | dassatha |
3. | dassati | dassanti, etc. |
(ii) with connecting vowel i. | ||||
(c) /bhuu, to be, special base: bhava, future base: bhavissa. | ||||
Active | Reflective | |||
Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
1. | bhavissaami | bhavisssaama | bhavissa.m | bhavissaamhe |
2. | bhavissasi | bhavissatha | bhavissase | bhavissavhe |
3. | bhavissati | bhavissanti | bhavissate | bhavisante |
(iii) with assimilation of ssa | ||
(d) /bhuj to eat, gives bhokkha as future base. | ||
(Sansk. /bhuj=bhok+.sya=bhok.sya) and we have: | bhokkhati. bhokkhate, bhokkha.m, etc. | |
/chid. to cut, gives: checcha | ||
(Sansk. /chid=chet+.sya=cet.sya) then: | checchaami, checchasi, checchati etc. | |
/dis, to see, gives a future: dakkha; | ||
(=Sans./d.rc=drak+.sya=drak.sya) from this we find | dakkhati, but more frequently dakkhiti. | |
Similarly from the root /sak to be able, is obtained sakkhiti. |
435. Adouble future is also found formed from bases like bhokkha, dakka, which, as has been just now explained are already future, by adding to them ssa with the connection vowel -i
Examples
/sak, future base: sakkha, sakkhissaami, sakkhissasi sakkhissati, sakkhissaama, etc.
436. From hoti, the contracted form of bhavati, to be, we find the following numerous forms for the future:
Singular | ||
1. | hemi, hehaami, hohaami, hessaami, hehissaami, hohissaami | I shall be |
2. | hesi. hehisi, hohisi, hessasi, hehissasi, hohissasi | Thou will be |
3. | heti, hehiti, hohiti, hessati, hehissati, hohissati | He will be |
Plural | ||
1. | hema, hehaama, hohaama, hessaama, hehissaama, hohissaama | We shall be |
2. | hetha, hehitha, hohitha, hessatha, hehissatha, hohissatha | You will be |
3. | henti, hehinti, hohinti, hessanti; hehissanti hohissanti. | They will be |
/kar. to do, gives: | ||||
Sing. | Plur. | |||
1. | kaahaami | I shall do | kaahaama | we shall do |
2. | kaahasi, kaahisi | thou wilt do | kaahatha | you will do |
3. | kaahati, kaahiti | he will do | kaahanti, kaahinti | they will do |
THE CONDITIONAL
437. The Conditional takes the augment a before the root.
438. The personal endings are as follows:
Active | Reflective | |||
Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
1. | ssa | ssamhaa | ssa.m | ssaamhase |
2. | sse, ssa, ssasi | ssatha | ssase | ssavhe |
3. | ssaa, ssa, ssati | ssa.msu | ssatha | ssi.msu |
Remark. The above endings are generally joined to the root or the base by means of the connecting vowel i.
/pac, to cook: | ||||
Active | Reflective | |||
Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
1. | apacissa.m | apacissamhaa | apacissa.m | apacissaamhase |
2. | apacisse | apacissatha | apacissase | apacissavhe |
apacissa | ||||
apacissi | ||||
3. | apacissaa | apacissa.msu | apacissatha | apacissi.msu |
apacissa | ||||
apacissati |
Remarks.
(a) The conditional may be translated by "if I could cook," or " If I should cook," etc.
(b) The conditional is not very frequently used.
THE PARTICIPLES
(a)Present Participle (HL: may often be translated by " when ..., while ..."etc.)
Active
439. All participles are of the nature of verbal adjectives, and must agree with their nouns, in number, gender and case.
440. The terminations of the present participle active are: nta, a.m or .m;
nta and .m are added to the base,
a.m is added to the root.
Examples | ||||
Root | Base | Present. Part. Active. Base | ||
/bha.n | to say | bha.na | bha.na.m, bha.nanta | saying |
/bhuu | to be | bhava | bhava.m, bhavanta | being |
/chid | to cut | chinda | chinda.m, chindanta | cutting |
/kar | to do | kara | kara.m, karonta | doing |
/paa | to drink | piva | piva.m, pivanta | drinking |
/pac | to cook | paca | paca.m, pacanta | cooking |
441. Verbal bases ending in e (1st Conj. 3rd. Division; 7th. Conj. and causal bases. See "Derivative or secondary conjugation") which have also another base in aya take only the termination nta after the base in e, and both nta and .m after the base in aya.
Examples (1st and 7th Conjugations) | |||
Root | Base | Present. Part. Active. Base | |
/cur | to steal | core, coraya | corenta, coraya.m, corayanta |
/ji | to conquer | je, jaya | jenta, jaya.m, jayanta |
/kath | to tell | kathe, kathaya | kathenta, kathaya.m, kathayanta |
/nii | to lead | ne, naya | nenta, naya.m, nayanta |
(Causative.) | |||
Root | Caus Base | Present. Part. Active. (base) | |
/chid | to cut | chede, chedaya | chedenta, chedaya.m, chedayanta |
chedaape, chedaapaya | chedaapenta, chedaapaya.m, chedaapayanta | ||
/dhar | to hold | dhaare, dhaaraya | dhaarenta, dhaaraya.m, dhaarayanta |
dhaaraape, dhaaraapaya | dhaaraapenta dhaaraaya.m, dhaaraapayanta | ||
/mar | to die | maare, maaraya | maarenta, maaraya.m, maarayanta |
maaraape, maaraapaya | maaraapenta, maaraapaya.m, maaraapayanta |
442. Bases in .naa, no, u.naa, u.no (4th Conj.) and naa (5th Conj.) generally take the termination nta.
Examples (4th and 5th Conjugations) | |||
Root | Base | Present. Part. Active. Base | |
/kii | to buy | ki.naa | ki.nanta |
/su | to hear | su.naa, su.no | su.nanta, su.nonta |
443. The stem or base of this Present Participle is in at, or ant as:
Pres Part | ||||
Root | Stem. Nom | Sing. Masc | Fem (see 444) | Neut (see 445) |
/bha.n | bha.nat, bha.nant | bha.na.m, bha.nanto | ||
/car | carat, carant | cara.m, caranto | chindatii , chindantii | chinda.m, chindanta.m |
/pac | pacat, pacant | paca.m, pacanto | pacatii, pacantii | paca.m, pacanta.m |
444. The Feminine is formed by adding ii to the stems or bases in at and nta. (see 443)
445. The Neuter is in .m like the masculine. (see 445)
446. These participles are declined like mahaa (226) in the Masculine, Feminine and Neuter.
The Present Participle may often be translated by " when ..., while ..."etc.
Reflective Participle
447. The Reflective Participle is formed by the addition of maana to the base. It is declined like purisa, ka~n~naa, and ruupa.m.
Examples Reflective Participle. | |||
Root | Masc. | Fem. | Neuter. |
/car | caramaano | caramaanaa | caramaana.m |
/daa | dadaamaano | dadaamaanaa | dadaamaana.m |
/pac | pacamaano | pacamaanaa | pacamaana.m |
/su | su.namaano | su.namaanaa | su.namaana.m |
448. Another Reflective Participle, much less frequent than the above, is formed by adding aana to the root. It is declined like that in maana.
Examples Reflective Participle. | |||
Root | Masc. | Fem. | Neuter. |
/car | caraano | caraanaa | caraana.m |
/daa | dadaaano | dadaaanaa | dadaana.m |
/pac | pacaano | pacaanaa | pacaana.m |
Remarks. As may be seen from the last example, dadaana, this participle may also be formed from the base.
The Future Participle
449. The future participle is either active or reflective.
(a) In the active, it takes the endings of the present participle active, nta, .m (or a.m), and is declined like mahaa.
(b) ln the reflective, the endings are maana and aana, and it is declined like purisa, ka~n~naa and ruupa.m.
(c) All these endings are added to the future base.
Examples (i) Future Participle Active. (nta, .m or a.m) | |||
Root | Masc. | Fem. | Neuter |
/car | carissa.m | carissatii | carissa.m |
carissanto | carissanti | carissantam | |
/pac | pacissa.m | pacissatii | pacissa.m |
pacissanto | pacissantii | pacissanta.m | |
/su | su.nissa.m | su.nissatii | su.nissa.m |
su.nissanto | su.nissantii | su.nissanta.m | |
Examples (ii) Future Participle Reflective. ( maana and aana) | |||
/car | carissamaano | carissamaanaa | carissamaana.m |
carissaano | carissaanaa | carissaana.m | |
/pac | pacissamaano | pacissamaa.na | pacissamaana.m |
pacissaano | pacissaanaa | pacissaana.m | |
/su | su.nissamaano | su.nissamaanaa | su.nissamaana.m |
su.nissaano | su.nissaanaa | su.nissaana.m |
The Passive Perfect Participle
450. This participle is very widely used. It is formed from the root by affixing to it the suffix ta or the suffix na.
Remarks. The suffix ta is by far the most commonly used in the formation of this participle.
451. ta is affixed in several ways:
(i) | If the root ends in a vowel, it is added directly without any change taking place in the root. |
(ii) | When the root ends in a consonant, ta may be joined to it by means of connecting vowel i. |
(iii) | When the root ends in a consonant, ta may become assimilated to it according to the usual rules. |
Remarks. At this stage the student ought to read carefully the chapter on Asssmilation (51.) |
452.
Examples (i) Roots ending in a vowel. | |||||
Root | Present | Pass. Perf. Part. | |||
/bhii | to be afraid | bhaayati | he is afraid | bhiita | afraid, frightened |
/buu | to be, become | bhavati | he is, becomes | bhuuta | been, become |
/ci | to collect | cinaati | he collects | cita | collected |
/daa | to give | dinna | given | ||
/dhaa | to hold | hita | held | ||
/ji | to conquer | jeti, jayati | he conquers | jita | conquered |
/~naa | to know | jaanaati | he knows | ~naata | known |
/nahaa | to bathe | nahaayati | he bathes | nahaata | bathed |
/nii | to lead | neti, nayati | he leads | niita | led |
/paa | to drink | pita | drunk | ||
/.thaa | to stand | .thita | stood, standing | ||
/yaa | to go, undergo | yaati | he goes | yaata | gone, undergone |
Examples (ii) Roots ending in a consonant and taking vowel i before ta. | |||||
Root | Present | Pass. Perf. Part. | |||
/cal | to shake | calati | he shakes | calita | shaken |
/gah | to take | ga.nhaati | he takes | gahita | taken |
/gil | to swallow | gilati | he swallows | gilita | swallowed |
/kapp | to arrange | kappeti | he arranges | kappita | arranged |
/kath | to tell | katheti | he tells | kathita | told |
/khaad | to eat | khaadati | he eats | khadita | eaten |
/likh | to write | likhati | he writes | likhita | written |
/ma.n.d | to adorn | ma.n.deti | he adorns | ma.n.dita | adorned |
/pac | to cook | pacati | he cooks | pacita | cooked |
Remarks. (a) Participles like pacita, calita, etc, are declined like purisa, ka~n~naa and ruupa.m. (b) In the Neuter these participles are often used as nouns: | |||||
Passive Perfect Participle | Neuter | ||||
/has | to smile | hasita | smiled | hasita.m, | a smile |
/gajj | to thunder | gajjitta | thundered | gajjita.m | the thunder |
/jiiv | to live | jiivita | lived | jiivita.m | life |
(iii) ta assimilated to the root. (see 453) |
453. The suffix ta assimilates, or is assimilated to the last consonant of the root:
Root | P. P. P. | Rules of Assimilation | ||
/bhuj | to eat | bhutta | eaten | (59, a) |
/budh | to know | buddha | known | (63) |
/.das | to bite | da.t.tha | bitten | (92) |
/dam | to tame | danta | tamed | (67) |
/duh | to milk | duddha | milked | (100) |
/is | to wish | i.t.tha | wished | (59, ii-iii) |
/jhas | to hurt | jhatta | hurt | (94) |
/kam | to proceed | kanta | proceeded, gone | (67) |
/kas | to plough | ka.t.tha | ploughed | (92) |
/labh | to obtain | laddha | obtained | (63, Remark.) |
/lih | to lick | li.lha | licked | (100,101,102) |
/majj | to polish | ma.t.tha(also ma.t.ta) | polished | (59, i) |
/muc | to free | mutta | freed | (59, b) |
/muh | to err | mu.lha,also muddha | erred | (100,101,102) |
/pat | to fall | patta | fallen | (62) |
/rudh | to obstruct | ruddha | obstructed | (63) |
/ruh | to ascend | ruu.lha | ascended | (100,101,102) |
/tap | to burn | tatta | burned | (64, i) |
454. (a) Roots in r generally drop the r before ta.
Examples | ||||
Root | P. P. P. | Rules of Assimilation | ||
/kar | to make | kata | made | (81) |
/mar | to die | mata | dead | (81) |
/sar | to remember | sata | remembered | (81) |
455. (b) Roots in n generally drop final n before ta.
Examples | |||
Root | P. P. P. | ||
/han | to kill | hata | killed |
/khan, or kha.n | to dig | khata (also: khaata, from a collateral form khaa=khan) | dug |
/man | to think | mata | thought |
456. (c) sometimes final .m is also dropped.
Examples | |||
Root | P. P. P. | ||
/gam | to go | gata | gone |
/ram | to sport | rata | amused, delighted |
457. (d) In a few cases, final r lingualizes the following t, as:
Examples | |||
Root | P. P. P. | ||
/har | to seize | ha.ta | seized, carried |
458. Pass. Perf. Part. which take na.
The suffix na is much less common than ta, and like it:
(i) | lt may be joined to the root by means of connecting vowel i, or |
(ii) | it may be joined directly to roots ending in a vowel; |
(iii) | when added directly to roots ending in a consonant, that consonant is assimilated to n of na, and sometimes the n of na is assimilated to the final consonant. |
459. Examples of (i)
Root | P. P. P. | Rules of Assimilation | ||
/sad | to settle | sinna | settled | (69, ii, iii) |
Remarks. The form sinna is found only for the verb nisiidati, to sit down= /sad+ni (prefix);
when /sad is preceded by other prefixes, the Passive Perfect Participle assumes the form; sanna, as:
sad + ava = Passive Perfect Participle: ava sanna, sunk, settled.
sad + pa = Passive Perfect Participle: pasanna, settled.
(Note that the base of root sad is siida.)
Root | P. P. P. | Rules of Assimilation | ||
/chad | to cover | channa | covered | (69, ii, iii) |
/chid | to cut | chinna | cut | (69, ii, iii) |
/daa | to give | dinna | given | (69 ii, iii) |
In this last example, aa of the root has been dropped, and the n doubled to compensate for its loss; the form datta given. ( = daa + ta, with the t doubled to make for the shortening of aa), is found sometimes.
Remarks. It will be seen from the above four examples that the insertion of i is to a great extent optional.
Root | P. P. P. | Rules of Assimilation | ||
/car | to wander | ci.n.na | wandered | (83) |
/kir | to scatter | ki.n.na | scattered | (83) |
/tar | to cross | ti.n.na | crossed | (83) |
Remarks. In these examples, i is inserted and then reduplicated and lingualized according to rule (83).
460. Examples of (iii)
Root | P. P. P. | Rules of Assimilation | ||
/bhaj | to break | bhagga | broken | (57) |
/vij | to be agitated | vigga | agitated | (57) |
In these two examples, final j of the root, having become, against the usual phonetic laws g, the n of suffix na, is assimilated to it by rule 57 (426, Remark). | ||||
/lag | to adhere | lagga | adhered | (57) |
461. Examples of (ii)
Root | P. P. P. | ||
/gilaa (glaa 113) | to be ill | gilaana | ill |
/haa | to be weak, low | hiina | wasted, inferior |
/khii | to decay, cease | khiina | decayed. (final i is lengthened) |
/lii | to cling to | liina | clung to |
/luu | to cut | luuna | reaped, cut |
In the last example, radical aa is replaced by ii.
462. A few Passive Perfect Participles are irregular, such as: jhaama, burnt, from /jhaa, to burn; phulla, expanded, split, from /phal, to expand, split; but these are properly speaking derivative adjectives used as participles.
463. Sometimes two forms of the Passive Perfect Participles for the same root are met with:
Root | P. P. P. | |
/daa | to give | dinna and datta |
/gam | to go | gata and gamita |
/kas | to plough | ka.t.tha and kasita |
/lag | to adhere | lagga and lagita |
464. The participles in ta and na are declined like purisa, ka~n~naa and ruupa.m.
Perfect Participle Active
465. The Perfect Participle Active, is formed by adding vaa to the Passive Perfect Participle.
Examples | |||||
Root | P. P. P | P.P.A. | |||
/bhuj | to eat | bhutta | eaten | bhuttavaa | having eaten |
/kar | to do | kata | made | katavaa | having made |
/pac | to cook | pacita | cooked | pacitavaa | having cooked |
Remarks. (a) These Perfect Participles Active are declined like gu.navaa.
Examples pacitavaa, pacitavatii or pacitavantii, pacitava.m or pacitavanta.m.
(b) The P. P. Active is also formed with suffix vii (231), in this case the a before vii is lengthened to aa. They are declined like medhaavi, (235) (that is, like da.n.dii nadii and vaari as:
pacitaavii having cooked; bhuttaavii, having eaten.
Future Passive Participle
466. This participle, also called participle of necessity, potential participle and gerundive, is formed by adding to the root the suffixes: tabba, ya, aniiya and iiya.
Remarks.
(a) Roots ending in u, uu, generally form the Future P. P. from the special base.
(b) This participle is passive in sense, expresses suitability, fitness, propriety and may be translated by " fit to be...",." must be...","ought to be...", " to be..." that which is expressed by the root.
(c) These participles, like those already treated of, are adjectives and are treated as such; they are declined like purisa, ka~n~naa and ruupa.m.
Tabba
467. This suffix is the most common. It is added:
(i) | Directly to roots ending in a vowel. |
(ii) | To roots ending in a consonant, it may be joined by means of connecting vowel i. |
(iii) | When added directly without connecting vowel i to roots ending in a consonant, initial t of tabba is assimilated to or assimilates the last consonant of the root in exactly the same manner as in the formation of the Passive Perfect Participle. |
Examples of (i) | |||||
Root | Future P.P | ||||
/daa | to give | daatabba | fit to be | that ought to be | that must be, given |
/haa | to abandon | haatabba | fit to be | that ought to be | that must be, abandoned |
/pa | to drink | paatabba | fit to be | that ought to be drunk |
Remarks.
(a) Roots ending in i, ii, change i, ii, to e before tabba: | |||||
Root | Future P.P | ||||
/i | to go | etabba | fit to be | that must be, gone to | |
/ji | to conquer | jetabba | fit to be | that must be, conquered | |
/nii | to lead | netabba | fit to be | that must be, led | |
(ii) Roots in u, uu form the Future P. P. on the Special Base: | |||||
Root | Future P.P. | ||||
/bhuu | to be | bhavitabba | fit to be | that ought to | that must be |
/ku | to sing | kavitabba | fit to be | that ought to be | that must be, sung |
In the case of root su, to hear, we find the u merely strengthened: sotabba, fit, etc., to be heard.
Examples of (ii) | |||
Root | Future P.P. | ||
/khan | to dig | khanitabba | fit to be, that ought to be, that must be dug |
/pac | to cook | pacitabba | fit to be, that ought to be, that must be cooked |
/pucch | to ask | pucchitabba | fit to be, that ought to be, that must be asked |
Examples of (iii) | |||
Root | Future P.P. | ||
/gam | to go | gantabba | fit to be gone to(67), etc. |
/kar | to do | kattabba(80); kaatabba (82) | fit to be done, etc |
/labh | to receive | laddhabba | fit to be received (63, Remark), etc |
YA
468. The initial y becomes assimilated to the last consonant of the root according to the usual rules of assimilation (79) Sometimes the radical vowel is strengthened.
Examples | ||||
Root | Future P.P. | Rules of Assimilation | ||
/gam | to go | gamma | fit, proper, etc, to be gone to | (71, i) |
/bhuu | to be | bhabba | that ought to be proper, possible | (77) |
/khaad | to eat chew | khajja | that can be chewed | (71,vi) |
/sak | to be able | sakka | able to be done | (71) |
/vaj | to avoid | vajja | that ought to be avoided | (71, 74) |
In this last example, the radical vowel uu has been strengthened before ya:
bhuu + ya = bhav + ya = bhavya = bhabba.
Root | Future P.P. | Rules of Assimilation | ||
/bhid | to break | bhijja | to be broken | (71vi.) |
/bhuj | to eat | bhojja | to be eaten. eatables. food | (71) |
/gah | to take | gayha | that can be taken. seized | (78 iii) |
/has | to laugh | hassa | fit to be laughed at | (76) |
/labh | to obtain | labbha | fit. worthy to be obtained | (71) |
/lih | to lick, sip | leyya | to be licked. sipped | (98 Remark.) |
(a) ya is, in a few cases, cases, joined to the root by means of vowel i. For instance:
/bhar | to support: |
bhaariya | that ought to be maintained with lengthening of radical a. |
/kar | to do make we have: |
kaariya | that ought to be or can be done with lengthening of radical a. |
kayya | that ought etc. to be done with assimilation of final r to ya. |
kayiira | that ought etc with metathesis (iii). |
(b) After roots ending in aa long initial y of ya is doubled and final a of the root is changed to e.
Root | Future P.P. | ||
/daa | to give | deyya | to be given, that ought to or can be given |
/haa | to abandon | heyya | to be abandoned, that ought to be abandoned |
/paa | to drink | peyya | that can, may, or ought to be drunk |
(c) ya is likewise doubled after roots in i, ii and the i or ii is changed to e.
/nii | to lead | neyya | to be led, that ought to be led |
/ji | to conquer | jeyya | to be conquered that can be conquered |
Aniiya
469. The suffix aniiya is added to the root or to the base.
Root | Future P.P. | ||
/kar | to do, make | kara.niiya | that ought to be made or done |
/pac | to cook | pacaniiya | fit to be cooked |
/puj | to honour | pujaniiya | worthy to be honoured |
(Observe that the n is lingualised through the influence of radical r, 83) | |||
/bhuu | to be | (base: bhava) bhavaniiya | that ought to be |
THE GERUND
470. The gerund is formed by means of suffixes: tvaa, tvaana, tuuna, ya, and tya. It is indeclinable and partakes of the nature of a participle.
Remarks.
(a) The suffix tvaa is most commonly met with; tvaana, tuuna, and sometimes tuuna.m are used as substitutes of tvaa and are met with in poetry much more than in prose.
(b) ya is not so restricted in use as tvaana and tuuna.
(c) tya which becomes regularly cca (74, iv), is merely a form of ya, initial t being inserted between the gerundian, suffix ya and a root ending in a vowel.
(e.g. pa + /i, to depart + ya = pa + i + t + ya = petya = pecca having departed, 110).
In Paali ya is added indiscriminately to simple roots or to roots compounded with prefixes; but, as in Sansk. (in which it is never used after simple roots), it is much more common after compound
verbs.
Tvaa, Tvaana, Tuuna
471. The suffix tvaa may be:
(i) | Joined to the root by means of connecting vowel i. |
(ii) | The initial t of the suffix is, in a few cases assimilated to the last consonant of the root. |
(iii) | The vowel of the root is gu.nated |
(iv) | Sometimes the last consonant of the root is dropped before suffixes tvaa, tvaana and tuuna |
(v) | The final long vowel of a root is shortened before these suffixes. |
(vi) | The suffixes are added to the special base as well as to the root. |
Examples | |||
Root | Gerund. | ||
/aap+ pa = paap | to get | patvaa | having got. (iv; v). |
/bhii | to fear | bhitvaa | having feared. fearing (v). |
/bhuj | to eat | bhutvaa | having eaten (iv). |
/chid | to cut | chetvaa | having cut (iii, iv) |
/daa | to give | datvaa | having given (v). |
/labh | to obtain | laddhaa | obtained (ii) (63, Remark). |
labhitvaa | having obtained. (i). | ||
/ji | to conquer | jitvaa.jetvaa | having conquered (iii). |
/kar | to make | katvaa | having made (iv). |
/khaad | to eat | khaaditvaa | having eaten (i). |
/nii | to lead | netvaa | having led (iii). |
/pac | to cook | pacitvaa | having cooked (i). |
/ttthaa | to stand, remain | .thitvaa | having stood.remained (i). |
Remarks.
From root | we have also | |
/daa | daditvaa, daditvaana | |
/kam | to step, to proceed | nikkamitvaa, nikkamituuna |
/kar | kaatuuna, kattuuna | |
/su | to hear | sutvaa, sotuuna.m, su.nitvaa, su.nitvaana |
/.thaa | thatvaa |
472.
(i) | ya is used mostly with roots compounded with prefixes. |
(ii) | In a few cases it is used with simple roots. |
(iii) | tya is regularly changed cca. |
(iv) | ya is added directly to roots ending in long aa. |
(v) | ya may be added to the Special Base. |
(vi) | ya is assimilated to the last consonant of the root. |
(vii) | ya may be joined to the root or to the base by means of i. |
Examples | ||||
/bhuj | to eat | bhu~njiya | having eate | (v. ii. vii) |
/cint | to think | cintiya | having thought | (ii.vii) |
/daa | to give | aadaaya | having given | (i. iv) |
/gah | to take | gayha | having taken | (ii. iii) |
/gam | to go | gamma | having gone | (vi. 71. ii) |
/haa | to abandon | vihaaya | having abandoned | (i. iv) |
/han | to strike | aahacca | having struck | =aa+han+tya. final n being dropped before initial t (n. dropped before t). |
/han | to strike | upahacca | having vexed | =upa+han+tya (See last remark). |
/han | to strike | uhacca | having destroyed | =u+han+tya (See last remark). |
/har | to take away | aahacca | having reached, attained | =aa+har+tya (81). |
/i | to go | abbisamecca | having comprehended | abhi+sam+aa+i+tya (21. i) |
/i | to go | pa.ticca | following upon, from | =pa.ti+i+tya |
/i | to go | pecca | having gone, departed | =pa+i+tya (21. i; 74. iv) |
/ikkh | to see | samekkhiya | having reflected | (i.vii) |
/jaa | to know | vijaaniya | having known, discerned | (i.v.vii) |
/kam | to tread | akkamma | having trodden | (vi. 71. 33. 35) |
/~naa | to know | abhi~n~naaaya | having known. | (i. iv) |
/sad | to sit down | nisajja | having sat | (vi. 71. 74) |
/sad | to sit down | nisiidiya | having sat | (i. vii. v). (See 459. Remark). |
/sic | to sprinkle | nisi~nciya | having besprinkled | (i vii) |
/vis | to enter | pavissa | having entered | (vi. i) |
This last should not be confounded with gerund, from /han, given above.
Remarks. (a) Sometimes the gerund having been formed by means of ya, the ya is dropped, the root alone remaining, as in;
abhi~n~naa | having known | = abhi~n~naaya |
pa.tisa"nkhaa | having pondered | = pa.tisa"nkhaaya |
anupaadaa | not having clung, not clinging | = anupaadaaya(an + upa + aa + /daa + ya) |
(b) Some roots seem to take a compound gerundial suffix, made up of ya and tvaa, and joined to the root by means of i, as:
aaruyhitvaa | (/ruh) | having ascended |
ogayhitvaa | (/gaah=gah) | having dived = ogayha = ogaahitvaa |
(c) There are some anomalous forms:
from | ||
disvaa | /dis | to see = having seen |
da.t.thu = disvaa | ||
anuvicca | /vid | to know = having known,final d being dropped before tya |
pappuyya | /aap+ pa = paap | to obtain = paapayitvaa |
vineyya | /nii | having removed |
niccheyya | /ni | having ascertained |
In these last three examples the y has undergone reduplication.
atisitvaa | from /sar=Sanskrit s.r(?) | having approached, having excelled |
(d) The student will have remarked that several forms are met with from the same root, as:
/daa | datvaa | daditvaa | daditvaana | daaya | ||
/gah | gayha | ganhiya | ganhitvaa | |||
/kar | kariya | karitvaa | katvaa | katvaana | kaatuuna | kattuuna |
THE INFINITIVE
473. The Infinitive is generally formed by means of suffix tu.m.
474. The suffixes tave, tuye and taaye are also met with, but seldom.
475. Tu.m, like the suffix of the P.P.P. (450) may be:
(i) | joined to the root or to the base by vowel i. |
(ii) | to the roots in aa, it is added directly. |
(iii) | roots ending in i, ii, change final i, ii to e; and roots in u, uu, change u, uu to o. |
(iv) | Initial t of tu.m is assimilated to the last consonant of the root; the last consonant may also be assimilated to t. |
(v) | tu.m is also added to the Special Base. |
Examples | |||
/aap | to obtain | + pa = pattu.m | to obtain. (iv. 64. i) |
/bhuj | to eat | bhottu.m | to eat. (iii. iv. 59a) |
/budh | to know | bodhitu.m | to know. (i. iii). |
/budh | to know | bujjhitu.m | to know. (i. v) . |
/chid | to cut | chinditu.m | to cut. (v). |
/chid | to cut | chettu.m | to cut. (iii. iv; 62. vi) |
/daa | to give | daatu.m | (ii) |
/gam | to go | gantu.m | to go. (iv; 67). |
/i | to go | etu.m | to go. (iii). |
/jaa | to know | jaanitu.m | to know. (v). |
/ji | to conquer | jetu.m | (iii) |
/khaad | to eat | khaaditu.m | to eat. (i) |
/labh | to obtain | laddhu.m | to obtain. (iv. 63. remark) |
/nii | to lead | netu.m | (iii) |
/pac | to cook | pacitu.m | to cook. (i) |
/sii | to lie down | setu.m | to lie down.(iii). |
/sii | to lie down | sayitu.m | (v). |
/su | to hear | sotu.m | (iii) |
/su | to hear | su.nitu.m | to hear. (v) |
/.thaa | to stand | .thaatu.m | (ii) |
/thar | to spread | tharitu.m | to spread. (i) |
/yaa | to go | yaatu.m | (ii) |
Tave, Tuye, Taaye
476. These suffixes are Vedic and but seldom used in Paali; tave, however, is more frequently met with than the other two.
/dhaa | to hold | nidhetave | to hide, bury | = ni + base dhe (391) + tave |
/dis | to see | dakkhitaaye | to see | 404 |
/gan | to count | ganetuye | to count | Added to the base gane |
/haa | to abandon | vippahaatave | to abandon | = vi + pa + haa + tave |
/mar | to die | marituye | to die | Joined by vowel i |
/nam | to bend | unnametave | to ascend, rise | = ud + nam + e + tave |
/nii | to lead | nitave | to lead |
477. The student will have remarked that several forms for the same root are often met with.
Remarks.
(a) The Infinitive is used both passsively and actively.
(b) The Dative of nouns in aaya is often used with an infinitive sense.
(c) The Infinitive expresses purpose and may be translated by: "for the purpose of, in order to."
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